Empires

THEME358THEMESINWORLD HISTORYAn Empire AcrossThree ContinentsTHE Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory thatincluded most of Europe as we know it today and a largepart of the Fertile Crescent and North Africa. In this chapterwe shall look at the way this empire was organised, thepolitical forces that shaped its destiny, and the social groupsinto which people were divided. You will see that the empireembraced a wealth of local cultures and languages; thatwomen had a stronger legal position then than they do inmany countries today; but also that much of the economywas run on slave labour, denying freedom to substantialnumbers of persons. From the fifth century on, the empire fellapart in the west but remained intact and exceptionallyprosperous in its eastern half. The caliphate which you willread about in the next chapter built on this prosperity andinherited its urban and religious traditions.Papyrus scrollsRoman historians have a rich collection of sources to go on,which we can broadly divide into three groups: (a) texts,(b) documents and (c) material remains. Textual sourcesinclude histories of the period written by contemporaries (thesewere usually called ‘Annals’, because the narrative wasconstructed on a year-by-year basis), letters, speeches,sermons, laws, and so on. Documentary sources includemainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin.The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banksof the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writingmaterial that was very widely used in everyday life. Thousandsof contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who arecalled ‘papyrologists’. Material remains include a very wideassortment of items that mainly archaeologists discover (forexample, through excavation and field survey), for example,buildings, monuments and other kinds of structures, pottery,coins, mosaics, even entire landscapes (for example, throughthe use of aerial photography). Each of these sources can onlytell us just so much about the past, and combining them canbe a fruitful exercise, but how well this is done depends onthe historian’s skill!2020-21

AN EMPIRE A CROSS THREE CONTINENTS59Two powerful empires ruled over most of Europe,North Africa and theMiddle East in the period between the birth of Christ and the early partof the seventh century, say, down to the 630s. The two empires werethose of Rome and Iran. The Romans and Iranians were rivals andfought against each other for much of their history. Their empires laynext to each other, separated only by a narrow strip of land that ranalong the river Euphrates. In this chapter we shall be looking at theRoman Empire, but we shall also refer, in passing, to Rome’s rival, Iran.If you look at the map, you will see that the continents of Europe andAfrica are separated by a sea that stretches all the way from Spain in thewest to Syria in the east. This sea is called the Mediterranean, and it wasthe heart of Rome’s empire. Rome dominated the Mediterranean and allthe regions around that sea in both directions, north as well as south.To the north, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two greatrivers, the Rhine and the Danube; to the south, by the huge expanse ofdesert called the Sahara. This vast stretch of territory was the RomanEmpire. Iran controlled the whole area south of the Caspian Sea downto eastern Arabia, and sometimes large parts of Afghanistan as well.These two superpowers had divided up most of the world that the Chinesecalled Ta Ch’in (‘greater Ch’in’, roughly the west).2020-21MAP 1: Europe andNorth Africa

60THEMESINWORLD H ISTORYThe Early Empire*The Republic wasthe name for aregime in which thereality of power laywith the Senate, abody dominated by asmall group ofwealthy families whoformed the ‘nobility’.In practice, theRepublic representedthe government ofthe nobility,exercised through thebody called theSenate. The Republiclasted from 509 BC to27 BC, when it wasoverthrown byOctavian, theadopted son and heirof Julius Caesar, wholater changed hisname to Augustus.Membership of theSenate was for life,and wealth andoffice-holdingcounted for morethan birth.**A conscriptedarmy is one which isforcibly recruited;military service iscompulsory forcertain groups orcategories of thepopulation.The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases, ‘early’ and‘late’, divided by the third century as a sort of historical watershedbetween them. In other words, the whole period down to the main partof the third century can be called the ‘early empire’, and the periodafter that the ‘late empire’.A major difference between the two superpowers and their respectiveempires was that the Roman Empire was culturally much more diversethan that of Iran. The Parthians and later the Sasanians, the dynastiesthat ruled Iran in this period, ruled over a population that was largelyIranian. The Roman Empire, by contrast, was a mosaic of territoriesand cultures that were chiefly bound together by a common system ofgovernment. Many languages were spoken in the empire, but for thepurposes of administration Latin and Greek were the most widely used,indeed the only languages. The upper classes of the east spoke andwrote in Greek, those of the west in Latin, and the boundary betweenthese broad language areas ran somewhere across the middle of theMediterranean, between the African provinces of Tripolitania (whichwas Latin speaking) and Cyrenaica (Greek-speaking). All those wholived in the empire were subjects of a single ruler, the emperor, regardlessof where they lived and what language they spoke.The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCEwas called the ‘Principate’. Although Augustus was the sole ruler andthe only real source of authority, the fiction was kept alive that he wasactually only the ‘leading citizen’ (Princeps in Latin), not the absoluteruler. This was done out of respect for the Senate, the body which hadcontrolled Rome earlier, in the days when it was a Republic.* TheSenate had existed in Rome for centuries, and had been and remaineda body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest families ofRoman and, later, Italian descent, mainly landowners. Most of theRoman histories that survive in Greek and Latin were written by peoplefrom a senatorial background. From these it is clear that emperorswere judged by how they behaved towards the Senate. The worstemperors were those who were hostile to the senatorial class, behavingwith suspicion or brutality and violence. Many senators yearned to goback to the days of the Republic, but most must have realised that thiswas impossible.Next to the emperor and the Senate, the other key institution ofimperial rule was the army. Unlike the army of its rival in the Persianempire, which was a conscripted** army, the Romans had a paidprofessional army where soldiers had to put in a minimum of 25 yearsof service. Indeed, the existence of a paid army was a distinctive featureof the Roman Empire. The army was the largest single organised bodyin the empire (600,000 by the fourth century) and it certainly had thepower to determine the fate of emperors. The soldiers would constantlyagitate for better wages and service conditions. These agitations often2020-21

AN EMPIRE ACROSS THREE CONTINENTS61took the form of mutinies, if the soldiersfelt let down by their generals or even theemperor. Again, our picture of the Romanarmy depends largely on the way they wereportrayed by historians with senatorialsympathies. The Senate hated and fearedthe army, because it was a source of oftenunpredictable violence, especially in thetense conditions of the third century whengovernment was forced to tax more heavilyto pay for its mounting militaryexpenditures.To sum up, the emperor, the aristocracyand the army were the three main ‘players’in the political history of the empire. Thesuccess of individual emperors dependedon their control of the army, and when thearmies were divided, the result usually wascivil war*. Except for one notorious year (69 CE), when four emperorsmounted the throne in quick succession, the first two centuries wereon the whole free from civil war and in this sense relatively stable.Succession to the throne was based as far as possible on family descent,either natural or adoptive, and even the army was strongly wedded tothis principle. For example, Tiberius (14-37 CE), the second in the longline of Roman emperors, was not the natural son of Augustus, theruler who founded the Principate, but Augustus adopted him to ensurea smooth transition.External warfare was also much less common in the first twocenturies. The empire inherited by Tiberius from Augustus was alreadyso vast that further expansion was felt to be unnecessary. In fact, the‘Augustan age’ is remembered for the peace it ushered in after decadesof internal strife and centuries of military conquest. The only majorcampaign of expansion in the early empire was Trajan’s fruitlessoccupation of territory across the Euphrates, in the years 113-17 CEabandoned by his successors.Shops in ForumJulium, Rome. Thispiazza with columnswas built after 51 BCE,to enlarge the olderRoman Forum.*Civil war refers toarmed struggles forpower within thesame country, incontrast to conflictsbetween differentcountries.The Emperor Trajan’s Dream – A Conquest of India?‘Then, after a winter (115/16) in Antioch marked by a great earthquake, in 116Trajan marched down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, and thento the head of the Persian Gulf. There [the historian] Cassius Dio describes himlooking longingly at a merchant-ship setting off for India, and wishing that hewere as young as Alexander.’– Fergus Millar, The Roman Near East.2020-21

62The Near East.From theperspective ofsomeone who livedin the RomanMediterranean, thisreferred to all theterritory east of theMediterranean,chiefly the Romanprovinces of Syria,Palestine andMesopotamia, andin a looser sensethe surroundingterritories, forexample Arabia.* These were localkingdoms that were‘clients’ of Rome.Their rulers couldbe relied on to usetheir forces insupport of Rome,and in return Romeallowed them toexist.Pont du Gard, nearNimes, France, firstcentury BCE. Romanengineers builtmassive aqueductsover three continentsto carry water.THEMESINWORLD H ISTORYMuch more characteristic was the gradual extension of Roman directrule. This was accomplished by absorbing a whole series of ‘dependent’kingdoms into Roman provincial territory. The Near East was full ofsuch kingdoms*, but by the early second century those which lay westof the Euphrates (towards Roman territory) had disappeared, swallowedup by Rome. (Incidentally, some of these kingdoms were exceedinglywealthy, for example Herod’s kingdom yielded the equivalent of 5.4million denarii per year, equal to over 125,000 kg of gold! The denariuswas a Roman silver coin containing about 4½ gm of pure silver.)In fact, except for Italy, which was not considered a province inthese centuries, all the territories of the empire were organised intoprovinces and subject to taxation. At its peak in the second century,the Roman Empire stretched from Scotland to the borders ofArmenia, and from the Sahara to the Euphrates and sometimesbeyond. Given that there was no government in the modern senseto help them to run things, you may well ask, how was it possiblefor the emperor to cope with the control and administration of sucha vast and diverse set of territories, with a population of some 60million in the mid-second century? The answer lies in theurbanisation of the empire.The great urban centres that lined the shores of the Mediterranean(Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch were the biggest among them) werethe true bedrock of the imperial system. It was through the citiesthat ‘government’ was able to tax the provincial countrysides whichgenerated much of the wealth of the empire. What this means isthat the local upper classes actively collaborated with the Romanstate in administering their own territories and raising taxes fromthem. In fact, one of the most interesting aspects of Roman politicalhistory is the dramatic shift in power between Italy and the provinces.Throughout the second and third centuries, it was the provincialupper classes who supplied most of the cadre that governed theprovinces and commanded the armies. They came to form a newelite of administrators andmilitary commanders whobecame much more powerfulthan the senatorial class becausethey had the backing of theemperors. As this new groupemerged, the emperor Gallienus(253-68) consolidated their rise topower by excluding senators frommilitary command. We are toldthat Gallienus forbade senatorsfrom serving in the ar my orhaving access to it, in order toprevent control of the empire fromfalling into their hands.2020-21

AN EMPIRE ACROSS THREE CONTINENTS63To sum up, in the late first, second and early third centuries thearmy and administration were increasingly drawn from the provinces,as citizenship spread to these regions and was no longer confined toItaly. But individuals of Italian origin continued to dominate the senateat least till the third century, when senators of provincial origin becamea majority. These trends reflected the general decline of Italy withinthe empire, both political and economic, and the rise of new elites inthe wealthier and more urbanised parts of the Mediterranean, such asthe south of Spain, Africa and the east. A city in the Roman sense wasan urban centre with its own magistrates, city council and a ‘territory’containing villages which were under its jurisdiction. Thus one citycould not be in the territory of another city, but villages almost alwayswere. Villages could be upgraded to the status of cities, and vice versa,usually as a mark of imperial favour (or the opposite). One crucialadvantage of living in a city was simply that it might be better providedfor during food shortages and even famines than the countryside.Doctor Galen on how Roman CitiesTreated the CountrysideACTIVITY 1Who were thethree mainplayers in thepolitical historyof the RomanEmpire? Writeone or two linesabout each ofthem. And howdid the Romanemperor manageto govern such avast territory?Whosecollaborationwas crucial tothis?‘The famine prevalent for many successive years in many provinces has clearlydisplayed for men of any understanding the effect of malnutrition in generatingillness. The city-dwellers, as it was their custom to collect and store enough grainfor the whole of the next year immediately after the harvest, carried off all thewheat, barley, beans and lentils, and left to the peasants various kinds of pulse –after taking quite a large proportion of these to the city. After consuming what wasleft in the course of the winter, the country people had to resort to unhealthy foodsin the spring; they ate twigs and shoots of trees and bushes and bulbs and roots ofinedible plants ’– Galen, On Good and Bad Diet.Public baths were a striking feature ofRoman urban life (when one Iranian rulertried to introduce them into Iran, heencountered the wrath of the clergy there!Water was a sacred element and to use itfor public bathing may have seemed adesecration to them), and urbanpopulations also enjoyed a much higherlevel of entertainment. For example, onecalendar tells us that spectacula (shows)filled no less than 176 days of the year!Amphitheatre at the Roman cantonment town of Vindonissa(in modern Switzerland), first century CE. Used for militarydrill and for staging entertainments for the soldiers.2020-21

64THEMESINWORLD H ISTORYThe Third-Century CrisisIf the first and second centuries were by and large a period of peace,prosperity and economic expansion, the third century brought thefirst major signs of internal strain. From the 230s, the empire founditself fighting on several fronts simultaneously. In Iran a new andmore aggressive dynasty emerged in 225 (they called themselves the‘Sasanians’) and within just 15 years were expanding rapidly in thedirection of the Euphrates. In a famous rock inscription cut in threelanguages, Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed he had annihilated aRoman army of 60,000 and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.Meanwhile, a whole series of Germanic tribes or rather tribalconfederacies (most notably, the Alamanni, the Franks and the Goths)began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the wholeperiod from 233 to 280 saw repeated invasions of a whole line ofprovinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and southernGermany. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territorybeyond the Danube, while the emperors of this period were constantlyin the field against what the Romans called ‘barbarians’. The rapidsuccession of emperors in the third century (25 emperors in 47 years!)is an obvious symptom of the strains faced by the empire in this period.Gender, Literacy, Culture*Saint Augustine(354-430) wasbishop of the NorthAfrican city of Hippofrom 396 and atowering figure inthe intellectualhistory of theChurch.Bishops were themost importantreligious figures in aChristiancommunity, andoften very powerful.One of the more modern features of Roman society was the widespreadprevalence of the nuclear family. Adult sons did not live with theirfamilies, and it was exceptional for adult brothers to share a commonhousehold. On the other hand, slaves were included in the family asthe Romans understood this. By the late Republic (the first centuryBCE), the typical form of marriage was one where the wife did nottransfer to her husband’s authority but retained full rights in theproperty of her natal family. While the woman’s dowry went to thehusband for the duration of the marriage, the woman remained aprimary heir of

Asia and China in the thirteenth century. All these attempts to make and maintain empires were driven by the search to control the resources of the trading networks that existed in the region as a whole, and to derive benefit from the links of the region with other areas such as India or China. All the empires evolved