Chapter 10 Agriculture - AP Human Geo

Chapter 10AgricultureBy Eugene Stanton

Food ProductionProviding food in the UnitedStates and Canada is a vastindustry.The mechanized, highlyproductive American orCanadian farm contrasts withthe subsistence farm found inmuch of the world.This sharp contrast inagricultural practicesconstitutes one of the mostfundamental differencesbetween the more developedand less developed countriesof the world.

Key Issues1. Where did agricultureoriginate?2. Where are agriculturalregions in lessdeveloped countries?3. Where are agriculturalregions in moredeveloped countries?4. Why do fanners faceeconomic difficulties?

TheEconomicsof Farming The reason why farming varies around the worldrelates to distribution across space of culturaland environmental factors. Elements of the physical environment, such asclimate, soil, and topography, set broad limits onagricultural practices, and farmers make choicesto modify the environment in a variety of ways. Broad climate patterns influence the cropsplanted in a region, and local soil conditionsinfluence the crops planted on an individualfarm. Farmers choose from a variety of agriculturalpractices, based on their perception of the valueof each alternative. These values are partly economic and partlycultural. How farmers deal with their physicalenvironment varies according to dietarypreferences, availability of technology, and othercultural traditions. At a global scale, farmers increasingly pursue themost profitable agriculture.

Agricultural Origins and Regions Origins of agriculture– Hunters and gatherers– Invention of agriculture Location of agricultural hearths– Vegetative planting– Seed agriculture Classifying agricultural regions– Subsistence vs. commercial agriculture– Mapping agricultural regions

Origins of AgricultureDetermining the origin of agriculture first requires a definitionof what it is—and agriculture is not easily defined.We will use this definition: Agriculture is deliberatemodification of Earth’s surface through cultivation of plantsand rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain.

Hunters and Gatherers Before the invention of agriculture, all humans probably obtained the foodthey needed for survival through hunting for animals, fishing, or gathering. Hunters and gatherers lived in small groups. The men hunted game or fished, and the women collected berries, nuts,and roots. This division of labor sounds like a stereotype but is based on evidencefrom archaeology and anthropology. The group traveled frequently, establishing new home bases or camps. The direction and frequency of migration depended on the movement ofgame and the seasonal growth of plants at various locations.

Contemporary Hunting and Gathering Today perhaps a quartermillion people, or less than0.005 percent of the world’spopulation, still survive byhunting and gathering. Contemporary hunting andgathering societies areisolated groups living on theperiphery of worldsettlement, but theyprovide insight into humancustoms that prevailed inprehistoric times, beforethe invention of agriculture.

Two Types of Cultivation Over thousands of years,plant cultivation apparentlyevolved from a combinationof accident and deliberateexperiment. The earliest form of plantcultivation, according to. . .Carl Sauer, was vegetativeplanting, direct cloning fromexisting plants, such as cuttingstems and dividing roots. Coming later, according toSauer, was seed agriculture.Seed agriculture is practicedby most farmers today.

Vegetative Planting HearthsFig. 10-1: There were several main hearths, or centers of origin, for vegetative crops(roots and tubers, etc.), from which the crops diffused to other areas.

Location of First Vegetative Planting Sauer believes that vegetative planting probably originated in Southeast Asia. The region’s diversity of climate and topography. . . encouraged. . . plantssuitable for dividing. Also, the people obtained food primarily by fishing rather than by hunting andgathering, so they may have been more sedentary and therefore able todevote more attention to growing plants. The first plants domesticated in Southeast Asia. . probably included rootssuch as the taro and yam, and tree crops such as the banana and palm. The dog, pig, and chicken probably were domesticated first in Southeast Asia. Other early hearths of vegetative planting also may have emergedindependently in West Africa and northwestern South America.

Seed Agriculture HearthsFig. 10-2: Seed agriculture also originated in several hearths and diffused from thoseelsewhere.

Diffusion of Seed Agriculture Seed agriculture diffused from Southwest Asia acrossEurope and through North Africa. Greece, Crete, and Cyprus display the earliest evidenceof seed agriculture in Europe. Seed agriculture also diffused eastward from SouthwestAsia to northwestern India and the Indus River plain. Again, various domesticated plants and animals werebrought from Southwest Asia, although other plants,such as cotton and rice, arrived in India from differenthearths. From the northern China hearth, millet diffused toSouth Asia and Southeast Asia. Rice. . has an unknown hearth. Sauer identified a third independent hearth in Ethiopia,where millet and sorghum were domesticated early. However, he argued that agricultural advances inEthiopia did not diffuse widely to other locations.

Diffusion of Seed Agriculture in theWestern Hemisphere Two independent seed agriculturehearths originated in the WesternHemisphere: southern Mexico andnorthern Peru. Agricultural practices diffused to otherparts of the Western Hemisphere. That agriculture had multiple originsmeans that, from earliest times, peoplehave produced food in distinctive ways indifferent regions. This diversity derives from a uniquelegacy of wild plants, climatic conditions,and cultural preferences in each region. Improved communications in recentcenturies have encouraged the diffusionof some plants to varied locations aroundthe world.

Differences between Subsistence andCommercial Agriculture The most fundamental differences inagricultural practices are between those in lessdeveloped countries and those in moredeveloped countries. Subsistence agriculture. . is the production offood primarily for consumption by the farmer’sfamily. Commercial agriculture. . is the production offood primarily for sale off the farm. Five principal features distinguish commercial. . from subsistence agriculture:–––––purpose of farming;percentage of farmers in the labor force;use of machinery;arm size;(and) relationship of farming to otherbusinesses.

Labor Force in AgricultureFig. 10-3: A large proportion of workers in most LDCs are in agriculture, while only a smallpercentage of workers in MDCs are engaged in agriculture.

Tractors, per PopulationFig. 10-4: Tractors per 1,000 people. Use of machinery is extensive in most MDCagriculture, but it is much less common in LDCs.

Farm SizeThe average farm size is relatively large incommercial agriculture, especially in theUnited States and Canada.Commercial agriculture is increasinglydominated by a handful of large farms.In the United States the largest 4 percentof farms. . account for more than one halfof the country’s total output.One half of U.S. farms generate less than 10,000 a year in sales.Large size is partly a consequence ofmechanization.As a result of the large size and the highlevel of mechanization, commercialagriculture is an expensive business.

Farmland Loss in MarylandFig. 10-1-1: Overlaps of soil quality, environmental and cultural features, and populationgrowth may show areas of greatest threat of farmland loss in Maryland.

Relationship of Farming to OtherBusinessesCommercial farming isclosely tied to otherbusinesses.Commercial farming hasbeen called agribusiness,integrated into a large foodproduction industry.Although farmers are lessthan 2 percent of the U.S.labor force, more than 20percent of U.S. labor worksin food production related toagribusiness: foodprocessing, packaging,storing, distributing, andretailing.

Mapping Agricultural Regions Several attempts have been made to outline the majortypes of subsistence and commercial agriculturecurrently practiced in the world, but few of theseclassifications include maps that show regionaldistributions. The most widely used map of world agricultural regionswas prepared by geographer Derwent Whittlesey in1936. Whittlesey identified 11 main agricultural regions, plusan area where agriculture was nonexistent. Whittlesey sorted out agricultural practices primarily byclimate. Agriculture varies between the drylands and the tropicswithin LDCs—as well as between the drylands of lessdeveloped and more developed countries. Because of the problems with environmentaldeterminism discussed in Chapter 1, geographers arewary of placing too much emphasis on the role ofclimate.

Key Issue 2: Agriculture in LessDeveloped Countries Shifting cultivation– Characteristics of shifting cultivation– Future of shifting cultivation Pastoral nomadism– Characteristics of pastoral nomadism– Future of pastoral nomadism Intensive subsistence agriculture– Intensive subsistence with wet rice dominant– Intensive subsistence with wet rice not dominant

World Agriculture RegionsFig. 10-5a: Locations of the major types of subsistence and commercial agriculture.

Shifting CultivationShifting cultivation is practiced in much of theworld’s Humid Low-Latitude, or A, climateregions, which have relatively high temperaturesand abundant rainfall.It is called shifting cultivation rather thanshifting agriculture because “agriculture” impliesgreater use of tools and animals and moresophisticated modification of the landscape.Shifting cultivation has two distinguishinghallmarks: farmers clear land for planting byslashing vegetation and burning the debris; andfarmers grow crops on a cleared field for only afew years.People who practice shifting cultivationgenerally live in small villages and grow food onthe surrounding land, which the village controls.

The Process of Shifting CultivationEach year villagers designate (an area) for planting.They must remove the dense vegetation that typically covers tropical land.Using axes, they cut most of the trees, sparing only those that are economically useful.The debris is burned under carefully controlled conditions.Rains wash the fresh ashes into the soil, providing needed nutrients.The cleared area is known by a variety of names in different regions, including swidden,ladang, milpa, chena, and kaingin.The cleared land can support crops only briefly, usually three years or less.Villagers. leave the old site uncropped for many years.The villagers will return to the site, . . . perhaps as few as 6 years or as many as 20 yearslater, to begin the process of clearing the land again.In the meantime, they may still care for fruit-bearing trees on the site.

Crops of Shifting CultivationThe precise crops grown by each village vary by local custom and taste.The predominant crops include upland rice in Southeast Asia, maize (corn)and manioc (cassava) in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa.Yams, sugarcane, plantain, and vegetables also are grown in some regions.The Kayapo people of Brazil’s Amazon tropical rain forest. . plant inconcentric rings.Plants that require more nutrients are located in the outer ring.It is here that the leafy crowns of cut trees fall when the field is cleared.Most families grow only for their own needs, so one swidden may containa large variety of intermingled crops.Families may specialize in a few crops and trade with villagers who have asurplus of others.