Work Across The Lifespan - University Of La Verne
Work Across theLifespanEdited byBoris B. BaltesDepartment of Psychology, Wayne State University,Detroit, MI, United StatesCort W. RudolphDepartment of Psychology, Saint Louis University,St. Louis, MO, United StatesHannes ZacherInstitute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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Chapter 9Lifespan Perspectives onSuccessful Aging at WorkDeborah A. Olson1 and Kenneth S. Shultz21Department of Management and Leadership, College of Business and Public Management,University of La Verne, La Verne, CA, United States, 2Department of Psychology, CaliforniaState University, San Bernardino, CA, United StatesThe concept of successful aging was initially proposed in the gerontologicalliterature in the 1960s (e.g., Atchley, 1971; Cumming & Henry, 1961;Havighurst, 1961; Neugarten, 1972). However, it wasn’t until Rowe andKahn (1987) published their paper on the MacArthur Model of successfulaging in Science that the focus shifted from defining successful aging as anabsence of disease and decline to asserting the importance of health andgrowth as the basis for aging successfully (Pruncho & Carr, 2017). The original MacArthur Model has three primary components: low risk of disease anddisease-related disability; maintenance of strong mental and physical function; and continued engagement with life, including both paid and unpaid(volunteer) productive activities. However, successful aging in the originalMacArthur Model has been criticized for focusing primarily at the individuallevel of personal agency (e.g., the need to engage in health promoting behaviors), while ignoring macro-level influences on successful aging which areoften out of the control of the individual, such as societal norms and policiesrelated to gender, race, and socioeconomic status differences (c.f., Katz &Calasanti, 2015).More recently, Rowe and Kahn (2015) discussed an extension of the original McArthur Model of successful aging, labeling it “Successful Aging 2.0:Conceptual expansions for the 21st century”. The interdisciplinaryMacArthur Research Network on an Aging Society came together in 2007 toidentify both the problems and potentialities of societal aging. The networkidentified four key criteria related to successful aging at the societal level:productivity and engagement; cohesion among generations; balancing theWork Across the Lifespan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812756-8.00009-8 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.215
216PART II Lifespan Perspectives on Working and Careersrisks and benefits of an aging society; as well as resilience to stress, and sustainability of functioning over time. Thus, to the extent that society can create a context in which all four of these criteria can be optimized, theindividual’s ability to age successfully will be enhanced.In that vein, Rowe and Kahn (2015) discussed three main goals for scholars and policy makers who wish to optimize the context for successful agingat both the societal and individual levels. First, core societal institutionsincluding schools, colleges, workplaces, hospitals, and families need to bereengineered to serve an increasingly age diverse society better. Second,there is the need to adopt a life course perspective to redistribute life’s majoractivities (e.g., education, work, retirement, childrearing, leisure) across thelifespan better to match the 21st century reality of an aging society. And,third, Rowe and Kahn discuss the need to focus on human capital and theproductivity gains that are created by the “longevity dividend” provided byextended lifespans.One will notice immediately that all three of the goals touch upon theareas of work and employment. The first goal of reengineering societal institutions, for example, prominently emphasizes the significant role of workplaces and successful aging. Meanwhile, the second goal of redistributingmajor life activities includes realizing that learning does not end after onecompletes high school or college, but rather continuous learning will need tooccur throughout our lifetimes. This need directly impacts our job opportunities and ultimately how our careers unfold in the 21st century. The thirdgoal of focusing on human capital speaks directly to longer work lives,whether individuals continue in their careers or engage in bridge employment or volunteer work as they transition from their career pursuits towardretirement (Wang, Adams, Beehr, & Shultz, 2009). However, before weexplore successful aging at work more in depth, we will first discuss lifespanperspectives on successful aging more broadly.LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVES ON SUCCESSFUL AGINGWhile Successful Aging 2.0 takes a broad, macro approach to studying successful aging (i.e., a societal level view), it is not technically a lifespan perspectives on successful aging. The lifespan perspective, as the name implies,examines the entire life course from childhood to old age. However, asZacher and Rudolph (2017) recently noted, in practice most empiricalresearch using the lifespan approach focuses on older adults (e.g., age 60years and older) who are often already outside the workplace. Below webriefly discuss two, broad-based lifespan perspectives that have been appliedto, and are particularly relevant to our understanding of successful aging atwork. See Zacher and Rudolph (2017), as well as other related chapters inthis volume, for a full discussion of other relevant lifespan theories.
Lifespan Perspectives on Successful Aging at Work Chapter 9217Baltes and Baltes (1990); Baltes (1997) selection, optimization, and compensation model is a meta-theoretical perspectives on development acrossthe lifespan that focuses primarily on older individuals (age 60 years andolder) and approaches used to maintain basic functions of daily activities. Inthe model, selection refers to the process individuals use to bring focus andprioritize goals as they age. Whereas, optimization is about maximizing theresources individuals currently possess (e.g., focusing more on crystalizedversus fluid intelligence as we age), while compensation is about bringing inadditional resources (e.g., using hearing aids to compensate for age-relateddegradation in auditory capacity). While the model was initially applied togerontological issues of advanced aging, in the past few decades it has alsobeen applied to a multitude of organizational topics.For example, in a recent summary of the research applying the selection,optimization, and compensation framework to organizational issues,Moghimi, Zacher, Scheibe, and Von Yperen (2017) found that implementation of the three strategies positively influences a variety of organizationaloutcomes, including job satisfaction, employee engagement, and job performance. Thus, the model clearly has had a significant influence on how organizational scientists have examined successful aging at work.Another prominent theory of successful aging is the motivational theoryof lifespan development (Heckhausen, 2006). The theory proposes two control mechanisms that can be used to promote successful aging. The first, primary control mechanism involves attempts to control or influence one’senvironment. For example, seeking a new job that that has more supportiveleaders and coworkers would be a form of primary control whereby individuals take the initiative to change their environment to foster successfulaging. The secondary control mechanism involves attempts to adapt to one’sexisting environment rather than control or influence it directly. For example, if an individual seeks social support from family or coworkers as anadaptive mechanism to an unsupportive work environment, then the individual is not working to control the environment, but rather adapting to it viarelying on secondary control mechanisms. In many instances, it is not possible for the individual directly to influence or control the environment itself,and so, as a result, secondary, adaptive mechanisms are a logical way tofacilitate successful aging. As the example above suggests, the motivationaltheory of lifespan development, like the selection, optimization, and compensation model, has direct applications to successful aging at work as well.While lifespan theories of successful aging have been popular and wellstudied in the gerontological literature, they are not without their critics.Most notably, lifespan theories often fail to integrate context into their explanations of developmental change. Said another way, lifespan theories tend tofocus on the processes of intraindividual development (i.e., ontogenesis),while often neglecting extraindividual influences of context on development(i.e., sociogenesis). As a result, person-by-context interactions are typically
218PART II Lifespan Perspectives on Working and Careersnot examined (Zacher & Rudolph, 2017). Therefore, below we briefly discuss three perspectives on successful aging at work that take a broadersystems-based, multiactor (e.g., employees, organizations, families, governments) perspective, thus accounting for broader contextual factors.SUCCESSFUL AGING AT WORKAs noted earlier, all three goals listed by Rowe and Kahn (2015) (i.e., reengineering core societal institutions, adopting a life course perspective, andfocusing on human capital) speak conspicuously to the workplace. Whiletheorizing on successful aging in gerontology has traditionally focused onindividuals in the 60-years-old and older age range, focusing on successfulaging at work requires that we focus on a somewhat younger cohort, often inthe 40 to 60-year-old age range or what gerontologists often refer to as midlife. Although with labor force participation continuing to climb at olderages (Toossi, 2013), an upper age limit closer to 70 or older is becomingmore appropriate when studying successful aging at work.Some two decades ago, Abraham and Hansson (1995), as well asHansson, DeKoekkoek, Neece, and Patterson (1997), helped to bring theconcept of successful aging at work into the mainstream. In the former study,Abraham and Hansson surveyed 224 working adults ranging in age from 40to 69 and examined their use of selection, optimization, and compensationstrategies to maintain their levels of job performance despite age relateddeclines. Their results “suggest that the SOC model of successful aging maybe useful in explaining how older workers can maintain important job competencies. Correlational evidence also suggests, however, that characteristicsof the job, workplace, and individuals may mediate the initiation and effectiveness of SOC behaviors” (p. 94). Thus, the Abraham and Hansson studyserved two formative purposes. First, it was one of the first studies to applythe broadly defined selection, optimization, and compensation model of successful aging specifically to the workplace. Second, the authors took asystems-based, multiactor perspective regarding successful aging at work,thus setting the stage for future researchers to integrate contextual factors,such as the workplace policies toward older workers, when studying successful aging at work.Meanwhile, in a review paper two years later, Hansson et al. (1997) provided an examination and integration of the successful aging-at-work literature. While the timeframe of the review was somewhat limited (i.e.,1992 6), it was the first comprehensive review of the literature on successful aging specifically in the work context. In addition, while successful agingin the workplace was only one of seven related areas reviewed (e.g., retirement, careers, older worker health, age discrimination), it also served as anoverarching theme or organizing framework for the review. Thus, successful
Lifespan Perspectives on Successful Aging at Work Chapter 9219aging at work became the meta-theoretical framework for reviewing a widevariety of work-related issues particularly important for older workers (e.g.,age discrimination).In later empirical studies, Robson, Hansson, Abalos, and Booth (2006)examined “criteria older workers use to evaluate their success in aging in theworkplace” (p. 156). Based on a survey of over 200 older workers, Robsonet al. identified five distinct self-reported criteria for successful aging atwork. These criteria included: (1) adaptability and health, (2) positive relationships, (3) occupational growth, (4) personal security, and (5) continuedfocus and achievement of personal goals. Each of the five dimensions waspositively correlated to workers’ self-perceptions of successful aging (i.e.,ratings of how well they had aged compared to their same-aged peers), withadaptability and health having the strongest relationship and personal security having the weakest relationship with workers’ self-perceptions of successful aging at work.In a follow-up article, Robson and Hansson (2007) focused on behavioralstrategies (i.e., proactive behaviors) in which older workers engaged to agesuccessfully at work. In a two-part study of over 250 workers, Robson andHansson identified seven dimensions of behavioral strategies related to successful aging at work via factor analyses: (1) relationship development, (2)ensuring security, (3) continuous learning, (4) stress relief, (5) skill extension, (6) career management, and (7) conscientiousness. All seven of thesebehavioral strategies were positively correlated with workers’ selfperceptions of successful aging at work identified in their 2006 study. Inaddition, the worker’s age moderated the relationships between the behavioral strategies of relationship development and skill extension with perceived success, where the strategies were less strongly related to perceivedsuccess among older compared to younger workers.More recently, Zacher (2015a,b) provided a working definition, and atheoretical framework, for investigating successful aging at work. Zacherand his colleagues (e.g., Zacher, 2015a,b; Zacher & Rudolph, 2017) haverecently provided comprehensive reviews of the successful aging-at-work literature. For example, Zacher (2015a) offers one of the first explicit, clear,and concrete definitions of successful aging at work. Namely,Successful aging at work involves a comparison of employees’ intraindividualage-related trajectories of a work outcome over time and across workinglifespan with other employees’ age-related trajectories of the same outcome.Employees whose trajectories deviate positively from the average trajectoryare aging successfully at work (p. 9).Zacher then goes on to outline four key themes of successful aging atwork. First, he examines the criteria associated with successful aging atwork. That is, both the objective and subjective work outcomes that are
220PART II Lifespan Perspectives on Working and Careersvalued by both employees and organizations. Next, he tackles the need tofocus on explanatory mechanism behind successful aging at work, such asinvestigating age as a potential moderator. He then moves on to discuss thepotential constraining and facilitating factors that help to explain differencesin successful aging outcomes across different ages. Finally, he emphasizesthe need to look at temporal patterns that can be operationalized by examining intraindividual age-related changes in criteria over time and across thelifespan.In laying out these four key themes, Zacher (2015a) provides one of thefirst comprehensive theoretical frameworks for fully investigating and understanding successful aging at work. He then provides a series of figures thatwould allow researchers to compare their findings to see if, in fact, theirresults support his definition of successful aging at work. In addition, Zachersummarizes his theoretical framework of successful aging at work in afigure that has employee age as the key antecedent, a variety of personal(e.g., knowledge, skills) and contextual (e.g., work characteristics) moderators and mediators, and a variety of work outcomes (e.g., work motivation,job performance, turnover, and occupational health and wellbeing) (seeZacher, 2015a, Fig. 2, p. 11).Kooij (2015a,b) also recently outlined her own theoretical perspectiveson successful aging at work. The focus of her theoretical model was on employees’ proactive behaviors, the maintenance of the fit between employees and theirjobs, and sustainable management of personal resources (i.e., work ability). As aresult, in Kooij’s model of successful aging at work, employees need to play aproactive role in maintaining their physical and mental health, work motivation,and work ability in order to sustain performance in their present and futurework lives. That is, they need to engage in both proactive person-job fit andproactive career behaviors to maintain person-job fit. In addition, Kooij arguesthat the effect of a continuous person-job fit on the maintenance of health,motivation, and work ability is mediated by employees’ effective managementof their personal resources. Thus, just as with the selection, optimization, andcompensation model discussed earlier, engaging in maintenance behaviors mayrequire a tradeoff between depletion of resources by engaging in such proactivebehaviors and the gains obtained in person-job and career fit by engaging inthose same behaviors.In the remainder of our chapter, we will use Kooij’s (2015a,b) model asour meta-theoretical framework that emphasizes the employee’s active rolein promoting successful aging at work (see also, Zacher & Kooij, 2017).Engaging in proactive behaviors, in Kooij’s model, leads to maintainingperson job fit throughout the life course, which, in turn, leads to keysuccessful aging at work outcomes such as maintaining one’s health, motivation,and work ability. Therefore, we next incorporate several prominent theories thatspeak directly to engaging in proactive work behaviors that promote successfulaging at work.
Lifespan Perspectives on Successful Aging at Work Chapter 9221PROACTIVE BEHAVIORS: ACTIVELY SHAPING WORK ANDRELATIONSHIPSAdapting and responding to changes and opportunities positively contributesto successful development over the course of one’s lifespan. Active adaptation to both internal and external changes is essential for successful adaptation. Changes can be imposed externally (i.e., through market and consumershifts that impact products, services, and jobs), but also emerge naturally aspart of experiences as we age (i.e., graduations, marriages, children, agingparents). The decisions and choices that individuals make in response to thechanges they face impact the outcomes they experience both personally andprofessionally. Proactive behaviors focused on approaches that optimize performance and eliminating and/or reducing obstacles that interfere with progress toward desired outcomes impacts successful aging at work.Over the life course, individuals who make choices to use their strengthsat work and prioritize tasks to invest time working on tasks they find mostinteresting and engaging tend to optimize their performance overall(Cleveland, Fisher, & Walters, 2017). To respond effectively to changes,tasks that are unattainable or unrealistic considering available resources orthe prevailing political environment in the organization (i.e., understandingwhat can be done within the culture of the organization) need to be abandoned. Kooji (2015a) provides a comprehensive review of the proactivebehaviors in which individuals can engage to facilitate successful aging atwork, including seeking additional training and mentoring, as well as goalsetting and emotion regulation. In addition, the lifespan development literature supports the contention that as individuals age, they take an active rolein responding to and shaping the environment in ways that optimize the outcomes they value given the resources that are available to them (Rudolph,2016).In addition, the literature focused on person-environment fit and proactivebehavior in organizational psychology delineates a wide range of behaviorsthat are related to successful aging at work. Job crafting serves as a linchpinintegrating the proactive approach individuals use to optimize the fit betweenthe strengths they possess and the targeted results desired by the organizationto optimize person environment fit (Kira, Van Eijnatten, & Balkin, 2010;Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Personal strengths are unique combinationsof characteristics and behaviors that impact how individuals approach workto optimize relationships and performance (Wood, Linley, Maltby, Kashdan,& Hurling, 2011). Strengths are not static, however. Over time, individualsproactively create opportunities to use their strengths at work and expandtheir knowledge and skills that contribute to the development of theirstrengths (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Lang & Carstensen, 2002; Wang,Olson, & Shultz, 2013). The job demands-resources model of job craftingdelineated by Tims and Bakker (2010) increased the research and focus on
222PART II Lifespan Perspectives on Working and Careersthe importance of job crafting as a process that optimizes individual wellbeing and performance.OPTIMIZING PERSON JOB FIT: CRAFTING TO STRENGTHSStrategies to optimize person-job fit have been found to predict performance,engagement, and satisfaction at work (Hartner, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002;Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). The concept and practicesrelated to job crafting have been utilized to optimize person-job fit since thelate 1980s. Considering the continuous internal and external changes thatimpact organizations today, job crafting offers a more adaptive and timelyresponse to rapidly changing conditions than the traditional process used byorganizations to redesign jobs.Berg, Dutton, and Wrzesniewski (2013) asserted that individual’sstrengths, motives, and interests serve as a unique lens through which todevelop strategies to adapt job tasks and processes to improve job performance. Job crafting can take multiple forms and thus contributes to successful aging at work through the actions individuals take to create and sustain aclear and evolving definition of their work, as well as who they are in relationship to their work. In addition, job crafting is an active process throughwhich individuals take the initiative to sustain meaning and engagement intheir work. This process impacts individual motivation, engagement, andwell-being through fostering the development of strengths and skills thatincrease person-job fit. More specifically, job crafting specifically focuses onchanging the perceived characteristics of the job that differentiates it fromother proactive work behaviors, such as taking personal initiative (Demerouti& Bakker, 2014).Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001) identified three primary dimensions ofjob crafting behaviors: task, cognitive, and relational. With task crafting,individuals focus on changing the boundaries of their work and theapproaches they use to complete tasks. This form of crafting allows individuals to adapt to changes in performance requirements in response to outsidepressures (i.e., to increase performance related to new competitors in themarket, implementation of technology that changes the approaches and processes used to complete tasks) and also develop new ways to improve taskperformance and increase efficiency by applying knowledge and experiencein new ways. Changes associated with task crafting benefit the organizationand team by increasing performance and efficiency related to achieving keygoals set by the organization. Task crafting also benefits individuals bymaintaining interesting and challenging work that provides opportunities forcontinuous learning and developing new approaches to complete tasks.Cognitive crafting is the process of reframing how one views one’s role.Individuals may reframe the tasks they need to complete by focusing on theoverall purpose of their work and view their work as an integrated whole.
Lifespan Perspectives on Successful Aging at Work Chapter 9223For example, teachers may focus on the purpose of facilitating the development of students to expand their critical thinking skills in ways that allowthem to more successfully navigate the plethora of information that bombards them daily rather than focusing on the (sometimes excruciating) detailsassociated with writing lesson plans, grading assignments, and managing disruptive classroom behaviors. As a result, cognitive crafting changes theboundaries of how individuals see their jobs (e.g., I am influencing students’lives by fostering and nurturing the development of their critical thinkingand leadership skills).Relational crafting emphasizes the importance of who individuals workwith as they complete tasks. Individuals seek out others whom they prefer towork with as they complete tasks and assignments. This includes individualswith whom they enjoy working who may: (1) possess complementary skillsthat assist them in completing work in a high-quality manner, (2) provideunique perspectives to help them develop creative approaches and innovations, as well as (3) fulfill social needs through working with and developingcollaborative relationships and meaningful attachments at work (Rath, 2007).In a recent field study, Kooij, van Woerkom, Wilkenloh, Dorenbosch,and Denissen (2017) implemented an intervention to identify the impact ofcrafting jobs focused specifically on crafting tasks to utilize individuals’strengths and interests. Results from their intervention demonstrated that jobcrafting initiated by the individuals who were specifically linked to theirstrengths positively impacted older worker performance and effectiveness,but did not impact the performance of younger workers. This is an importantcontribution to our understanding the impact of job crafting on successfulaging at work. Specifically, as employees age, they develop more selfconfidence, self-awareness, and dominance at work, which positively contributes to their ability to craft their roles at work and align their actions withtheir strengths in ways that optimizes performance (Roberts, Walton, &Viechtbauer, 2006). Therefore, one important factor in aging successfully atwork is related to self-awareness and building an environment that facilitatesthe ability to use ones’ strengths in meaningful ways.In an effort to synthesize the literature on job crafting, Rudolph, Katz,Lavigne, and Zacher (2017) recently completed a meta-analysis of theresearch conducted to date on job crafting related to proactive behaviors thatfacilitate and optimize person job fit. They used the four dimensions of jobcrafting proposed by Tims, Bakker, and Derks (2012). The dimensions were:(1) seeking out increasingly more challenging work and volunteering towork outside one’s current role; (2) reducing and eliminating job tasks thatnegatively impact physical, cognitive, or emotional well-being through minimizing work/life imbalances and excessive workload; (3) expanding autonomy and task variety to facilitate structural resources that positively impactmotivation; and (4) expanding social resources that increase support fromcolleagues and seeking out feedback and advice from others at work. Results
224PART II Lifespan Perspectives on Working and Careersshowed that overall job crafting, as a composite of all four dimensionsdefined in Tims et al, was related to agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness to experience (Big Five dimensions), proactive personality, and general self-efficacy.MOTIVATIONAL MAINTENANCE AND SUCCES
LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVES ON SUCCESSFUL AGING While Successful Aging 2.0 takes a broad, macro approach to studying suc-cessful aging (i.e., a societal level view), it is not technically a lifespan per-spectives on successful aging. The lifespan perspective, as the name implies, examines the entire life course from childhood to old age. However, as
May 02, 2018 · D. Program Evaluation ͟The organization has provided a description of the framework for how each program will be evaluated. The framework should include all the elements below: ͟The evaluation methods are cost-effective for the organization ͟Quantitative and qualitative data is being collected (at Basics tier, data collection must have begun)
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̶The leading indicator of employee engagement is based on the quality of the relationship between employee and supervisor Empower your managers! ̶Help them understand the impact on the organization ̶Share important changes, plan options, tasks, and deadlines ̶Provide key messages and talking points ̶Prepare them to answer employee questions
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Chính Văn.- Còn đức Thế tôn thì tuệ giác cực kỳ trong sạch 8: hiện hành bất nhị 9, đạt đến vô tướng 10, đứng vào chỗ đứng của các đức Thế tôn 11, thể hiện tính bình đẳng của các Ngài, đến chỗ không còn chướng ngại 12, giáo pháp không thể khuynh đảo, tâm thức không bị cản trở, cái được
The Dallas Lifespan Brain Study is an ongoing longitudinal study to examine changes in human cognition as well as changes in brain structure and function across the lifespan. This study represents the first systematic investigation of changes in neural activation across the lifespan, including middle-age.
two distinct groups of women who shared common drinking patterns across their lifespan. The three groups of male drinkers were made up of: 1. those who drank alcohol infrequently in moderate-to-low quantities over their lifespan (36%) 2. those who drank alcohol frequently in moderate-to-low quantities over their lifespan (51%) 3.
