The Pronunciation Of English
The Pronunciation of English
For Carol
ThePronunciationof EnglishA Course BookCharles W. KreidlerSecond Edition
1989, 2004 by Charles W. Kreidler350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, AustraliaThe right of Charles W. Kreidler to be identified as the Author of this Workhas been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, andPatents Act 1988.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted bythe UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the priorpermission of the publisher.First edition published 1989Second edition published 2004 by Blackwell Publishing LtdLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataKreidler, Charles W., 1924–The pronunciation of English : a course book / Charles W. Kreidler.—2nd ed.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.ISBN 1–4051–1335–9 (alk. paper) — ISBN 1–4051–1336–7 (pbk. : alk.paper)1. English language—Pronunciation. 2. Englishlanguage—Pronunciation—Problems, exercises, etc. 3. Englishlanguage—Pronunciation by foreign speakers. 4. Englishlanguage—Pronunciation by foreign speakers—Problems, exercises, etc.I. Title.PE1137.K84 2004421′.52—dc222003015474A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.Set in 10/12.5pt Palatinoby Graphicraft Limited, Hong KongPrinted and bound in the United Kingdomby MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, CornwallFor further information onBlackwell Publishing, visit our website:http://www.blackwellpublishing.com
ContentsPreface to the Second EditionAbout this Book1Language and Speech1.11.21.31.41.52Language variationA very brief history of the English languageSpeech and languagePhonological analysisSummaryNotesxivxv112491112Sound . . . and ingEnergy, vibration, and mediumThe measurement of vibrations2A Exercise: sound waves2.42.52.62.72.82.9ResonanceAir in motionThe human voiceThe vocal cordsThe vocal tractKinds of speech sounds2.102.11SummaryAddendum: a note on redundancy2B Exercise: classes of sounds and features2C Exercise: redundancy statements2A Feedback
vi ContentsNotes292929Consonants302B Feedback2C Feedback33A Preliminary exercise: identifying consonantsby matching3.1 The feature [consonantal]3.2 Lip consonants (labials)3.3 Tongue-tip consonants (apicals)3BQuestions about features3.4 Tongue-front consonants (laminals)3.5 Tongue-back consonants (dorsals)3.6 Summary chart3CQuestions about feature differences3.7 Articulators or points of articulation?3.8 The feature [lateral]3.9 Summary3D3A3B3C3D4Exercise: practice with 63737383839404142Notes43434343Vowels and Glides454A Preliminary exercise4.14.24.34.44.54.6Dialect differencesVowel featuresA general inventory and particular inventoriesPhonetic descriptionsThe vowel inventories of specific dialectsThe incidence of vowels4BPractice with transcription4.7 The glides4C Practice with phoneme classes4D Exploring matters of vowel incidence4.8 ck4646484951575860626363636565676767
Contents5Syllables and Stress685.1 Syllables5.2 Syllable 85868687Phonotactics885A5A5B5BExploring syllable onsetsFeedback and commentExploring syllable codasFeedback and comment5.3 Strong and weak syllables5.4 Syllable division5.5 Suffixes and stress5CExercise on stress in related words5.6 Compounds and some other words5D Exercise on certain word endings5.7 Identifying the vowels of weak syllables5E5F5GExercise and comment: final /C, M, o/Exercise and comment: /C, M/ before vowelsExercise and comment: contrast of /B/ and /C/5.8 Syllabic consonants5H Practice with syllabic consonants5.9 Summary5C Feedback5D Feedback6vii6.1Word-initial position6A Problem: initial clusters6A Feedback and discussion6.26.36.4A note regarding /j/Contrast and variationWord-final position6B6B6C6.5Questions: final clustersFeedback and discussionClusters of three consonantsWord-medial position6D Question: medial clusters6E Practice: dividing into syllables6.66.76.86.9Borrowed wordsOmission and insertion of a consonantLimits on vowel occurrencesFree vowels and checked vowels6FInvestigating some constraints6.10 Functional loads6.11 105
viii ContentsNotes106106107107107Consonant and Vowel Variation1087.1 Variation in point of 2123123123123Some Consequences of Phonotactics1248.1 Consonant clusters and some grammatical ackFeedback7A Questions about apical consonants7B Questions about dorsal consonants7C Questions about clear and dark /l/7.2 An example of mutual assimilation7.3 Variation in lip shape7.4 Variation in nasality7D Questions about nasalized vowels7.5 Variation in onset and release7E7F7G7H7IExploring onset and release of stopsExploring lateral and nasal releaseQuestions on the onset of sonorant consonantsQuestions on the onset and release of voiced obstruentsExperiment with aspiration7.6 Variation in length7J7KQuestion: Two consonants in sequenceQuestion: Length of sonorants7.7 Multiple variation for /t/7.8 Some questions of perception7.9 ckFeedbackFeedback8A Exploration: regular past tense8B Exploration: regular plural number8C Question: possessive
38138138138138139139139139The Rhythm of English Speech1409.19.2ProsodyTone units9.39.4Stress timingMarked accent: paradigmatic focus1401431441441469B Practice: sentences accented differently148Marked accent: syntagmatic 1618D8E8E8F8GQuestion: third person presentQuestions: reduced ‘is’ and ‘has’Feedback and discussionQuestion: generative treatment of past tense morphemeExercise: final clusters8.2 Morpheme variation8H Practice: bases in -Cr8I Practice: bases in -Cl8J Questions: bases in -mn8.3 Differences in morpheme division8.4 9A Practice: dividing an utterance into tone units9.59C Exploration: placing accent in a dialog9C Feedback and discussion9.69.79.89.9A note on ‘too’ and ‘either’De-accenting: anaphoric wordsLexical anaphoraDe-accenting to embed an additional message9D Exploration: differences in de-accenting9E Practice: creating different dialogs9.109.11Accent on ackFeedback
tion and perceptionThe falling tunesThe rising tunesComparisonsCompound 8Predicting Word 619619619719719719719710A10B10A11Practice: utterances that differ in intonationAdditional practice: three dialogsFeedbackIs stress predictable?Stress rulesNeutral suffixesTonic endingsThe basic stress rule for verbs11A Exercise with verbs11.6The basic stress rule for nouns11.7Rules for adjectives11BExercise with nouns11C Exercise with adjectives11D Question11.8Extending the basic stress rules11E11F11.9Discovery exercisePracticeSome variations in stress11G Questions11H What do you say?11.10 Mixed endings11.11 Some ‘special’ te the rule11.12 ckFeedbackFeedbackFeedbackFeedback
ContentsNotes197198198198199199Prefixes, Compound Words, and cal Processes in 1J11K11L1212.2Practice: compound nounsPractice: compound verbs, nouns, and adverbsPractice: structure treesCompounds and ackFeedbackCompounds12A12B12CPractice: compounds and phrasesWhat do you say?Compound verbsPrefixes12F12GQuestions: stress in verbsExploration: stress in related verbs and nouns12.5Greek-type compounds12.612.7A rhythm QuestionsExploration: homophones?More about phonological kFeedbackFeedbackFeedbackFeedbackFull forms and reduced ary13A13BFeedbackFeedback
xii ContentsNotes239241241241Phonological Processes and the Lexicon24214.114.214.314.4Words and morphemes that changeUnderlying forms and lexical processesChecked vowel reductionPalatalization14.5Alternation with zero14.6Spirantization14.7Velar FeedbackPracticeProblemExercisesPractice14.8The sequence of rules14.9Change in voice14E14FProblemQuestions14.10 The vowel shift rule14GPractice14.11 Free and checked vowels14HPractice14.12 More about 14 Summary14A Feedback14B Feedback14C Feedback14D Feedback14E Feedback14F Feedback14G Feedback14IFeedback14JFeedbackNotesAppendix: A List of Word-endings and their Effects on Stress1 Neutral suffixes2 Tonic endings273273275
Contents xiii3 Heavy endings4 Light endings5 Posttonic suffixes6 Some special suffixes275277279279Glossary of Technical TermsBibliographyIndex284296303
Preface to theSecond EditionWhen I wrote The Pronunciation of English fifteen years ago, I expected that itwould serve as a textbook for advanced students of English and linguistics,many of whom were preparing for a career as teachers of English as a secondor foreign language. My aim was to present the facts of pronunciation inthe principal native-speaker varieties of the language and to use generativephonology as the theoretical basis for the presentation. I hoped for a doubleaccomplishment: to give students who are not native speakers of English abetter ‘feel’ for the spoken language, and to lead native speakers to a morespecific awareness of the knowledge they acquired early in life. The presentedition has the same general purpose.The method of presenting the material also remains the same. In the originalpreface I wrote:I believe that learning linguistics requires a heavy involvement with data. Thestudent needs to do analysis, going from observed facts to general statements andthen testing these with more observations.More than 80 exercises scattered throughout the book are meant to lead thestudent to participate continually in the development of the topics treated.Innovations in the present edition are due mostly to the feedback I havereceived from those who used the earlier work in teaching and/or studying.I have tried to incorporate the perspectives achieved in the ‘new phonologies’of the past decade and a half, but most of what is new in this second editionhas a pedagogic purpose: deletion of some material that turned out to beunnecessary, more attention to the definition of technical terms, more chartsand figures to illustrate, and a glossary.I am grateful to all who have commented on the earlier edition and to theBlackwell staff for their smooth efficiency in producing this book. Responsibility for the contents rests with me, of course.C. W. K.
About this BookEach of the 14 chapters begins with one or more paragraphs which areintended to tell briefly the content of the chapter. Each ends with a summary,which briefly reviews the content of the chapter and also tries to show the importance of what has been treated, or to describe some problems in analyzing nottaken up within the chapter. The last section, called Notes, suggests readingsin other books for those who want to extend their exploration of these topics.Linguistics, like every academic discipline, has its own technical terms, andsome of them are used in this book. These terms are in bold print when theyare first introduced. Some of the terms, such as suffix, may already be familiarto you; some, like allophone, are likely to be new; and some will probably befamiliar to you but you will find that they are used here in a more specialized way; accent, assimilation, and stop are examples. The Glossary providesdefinitions or explanations, with examples.Description of pronunciations also requires the use of special symbols, whichare introduced from chapter 2 on. As with technical terms, several of thesesymbols will be unfamiliar to you and some – ordinary letters of the Romanalphabet – you will already know. But every symbol will consistently havea specific value, always representing the same speech sound or phoneme.Keep in mind that we are dealing with speech, not spelling, and that Englishspelling does not consistently represent what people pronounce. When asymbol – one or two letters – appears between slant lines, it represents anEnglish phoneme; for example, /k/ represents the phoneme that occurs at thebeginning of the words cat and kitten and in the middle of second, chicken,token, and liquor. Symbols in square brackets represent speech sounds or phones;cold and scold both have the phoneme /k/ but the phoneme is pronouncedwith aspiration, [kh], in cold but without aspiration, [k], in scold. A tick (l) isused to mark the stressed syllable of a word (the syllable following the tick);for example, lorigin, olriginal, origilnality. Other special signs are explained asthey are introduced.
xvi About this BookEach chapter contains some exercises. These have different names but thenames always appear in small capitals, like this. Most exercises have justone answer for each question or task; in some cases there is more than onecorrect answer; and in other cases the questions asked are mainly intended tointroduce a discussion. Each exercise is followed by a feedback, sometimesright after the exercise, sometimes at the end of the chapter. Try to do eachexercise by yourself before looking at the feedback.If you are a native speaker of English, you may find that some of the descriptive statements and some of the illustrative utterances do not agree withwhat you say. This is inevitable. There is a limit to the variation that can bedealt with in a single book. While we cannot deal in detail with every varietyof the language, we hope to provide a basis for understanding what kinds ofvariation exist.
Language and Speech11Language and SpeechThis book is an attempt to answer a question: How is English pronounced?The question is deceptively simple, and it cannot have a simple answer.English today is the native language of nearly 400 million people and thesecond language of many others scattered all over the world. A language sowidespread is bound to be different in different places. We are all awarethat the Scots and the Australians, Londoners and New Yorkers, Irish, NewZealanders, South Africans, Jamaicans, Welsh, and Canadians do not soundthe same when they speak. How can anyone describe the pronunciation of somany different people?The diversity is real and must be treated in an account of how English ispronounced, but the commonality is greater. There is much more to be saidabout what is common to all speakers of English than there is regarding whatis different. Furthermore, although to describe pronunciation obviously requiresus to tell what people do with their voices, we will be, in a sense, more concerned with the language they possess in common.1.1 Language variationIn every language there is variety. A language varies from one place to another, from one era to another, from one occasion to another. The differencesmay be in choice of words to express a meaning, as with petrol versus gas(oline)or dual carriageway versus divided highway. Differences exist in word formation:for the past tense of the verb dive does one say dived or dove? There are possibledifferences in the ways that words are put together to form phrases andsentences: would you say, for instance, They gave it me, or They gave me it, orThey gave it to me? In this book we are concerned with differences in pronunciation. Some words are spoken differently by different speakers of English,for instance either, garage, and tomato. We are more concerned, however, with
2Language and Speechsystematic differences; for example, some speakers of English pronounce an Rin such words as car and horn and other speakers do not; for the former spaand spar sound different, for the latter group the two words are homophones.There are interesting differences in the vowel systems of different dialects:how different are stock and stalk (and stork), for instance?We can discuss language variation under two headings: differences amongpeople, the users of language, and differences in the uses of language, theways in which people employ language on different occasions.First, we are all aware of the differences of the sort mentioned in the firstparagraph, above. People who live in different areas speak different regional,or geographic, dialects. The geographic differences in English reflect the different times in which speakers of English settled in an area, how diverse theywere in their origins, how much contact they have had with other speakersof the language and what influence there has been from speakers of otherlanguages.Geographic dialects are not the only kind of difference among speakers of alanguage. In any locality different people grow up with different advantagesand opportunities for education; the forms of language used by the moreeducated are generally considered more prestigious than the forms used bythe less educated (but that doesn’t mean that the less educated want to talkdifferently). Such differences are social dialects. We may also speak of agedialects – nobody expects teenagers to talk like their grandparents, or viceversa – and sex dialects – men and women use language differently. Thedifferences of these sorts are mostly in vocabulary, however, and are not ofgreat concern in a book on pronunciation. The geographic differences areimportant for this book. The next section briefly traces the expansion of theEnglish language to account for the major varieties of the language in ourtimes. Chapter 4 contains a more technical account of what these differencesare.1.2 A very brief history of the English languageWhen Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrated from the continent of Europe to theisland of Britain in the fifth century ad, they spoke a language which was tobecome English. Within two centuries they had subjugated, intermarried with,or pushed back the people who were there before them, until varietiesof English were being spoken in most of what is now England and in thelowlands of Scotland (though some have maintained that Scots is a languagerelated to English rather than a dialect of it). The Celtic languages of theoriginal inhabitants were confined to Cornwall, Wales, and the highlands andislands of Scotland. In the centuries that followed regional varieties of Englishdeveloped in a feudal society that had no ruling class nor dominant center.With the Norman Conquest in 1066 French became the language of theruling class, the language of government, just as Latin was the language of
Language and Speech3religion. Varieties of English developed a grammar quite different from preNorman English and a double-barreled vocabulary with numerous synonymsof the type deep/profound, ring/circle, last/endure. When London grew in importance as the political capital and later as the commercial capital, Englishdisplaced French in official functions and the variety spoken in Lo
language—Pronunciation—Problems, exercises, etc. 3. English language—Pronunciation by foreign speakers. 4. English language—Pronunciation by foreign speakers—Problems, exercises, etc. I. Tit
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