September 1992 Opium Poppy' Cultivation And Heroin Processing In .
If you have issues viewing or accessing this file contact us at NCJRS.gov.u.s. Department of JusticeDrug Enforcement AdministrationOffice of IntelligenceSeptember 1992Opium Poppy' Cultivationand Heroin Processingin Southeast Asia. eC77sDEA- 92004
141189U.S. Department of JusticeNational Institute of JusticeThis document has been reproduclld exactly as received from theperson or organization originating It. Points of view or opinions stated Inthis document are those of the authors and do not necessarily representthe official position or policies of the National Institute of Justice.Permission to reproduce this: iLlirmaterial has been9FUi3i c Doroain/Drug Enforcerrent Adrm.U S. Department of Justiceto the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS).Further reproduOllol1 outside of the NCJRS system requires permissionof the owner.U.S. Department of JusticeDrug Enforcement AdministrationOffice of IntelligenceWashington, DC 20537(202) 307-8100September 1992
ADMINISTRATOR·S MESSAGEOpium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia reviews in detail severalcomplex natural and chemical procedures linked with heroin production. It further explainshow the opium poppy plant of Southeast Asia is grown and harvested, how the poppy's opiumis chemically converted into morphine, and fmally. how that morphine is then refmed into"China White" heroin by Southeast Asian "cooks" and "chemists." The report will interesta wide audience: those studying "source country" issues, those determining opium poppycrop estimates in mainland Southeast Asia, and those monitoring and controlling theintemational import and export of chemicals.Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia also presents thetechnical relationship between opium poppy cultivation in the Golden Triangle (the mountainous region where Burma, Laos, and Thailand share common borders) and heroinproduction in the laboratories of Southeast Asia.Robert C. BonnerAdministrator ofDrug Enforcementiii
TABLE OF CONTENTSAdministrator's Message . iiiList of Illustrations . vi. 0 f Maps . VI.LIstExecutive Summary . viiOrigin and History of the Opium Poppy . 1The Opium Poppy Plant . 3Opium Poppy Growing Areas . 5Field Selection and Land Clearing . ,. 7Land Preparation and Cultivation Methods . 8Opium Harvesting Methods . 10Cooking Opium . 12Extraction of Morphine from Opium . 13Conversion of Morphine to Heroin Base . 15Conversion of Heroin Base to Heroin . 17Heroin No. 3 . 17Heroin No. 4 . ", . 18Conclusion . 22Glossary of Terms . 23Distribution . 31 v
LIST OF ,ILL.USTRAT.IONS .'". ,Figure 1. Basic Parts of the Opium Poppy Plant . 2Figure 2. Major Opium Poppy Growing Areas in Southeast Asia . 4Figure 3. Ethnic Groups Involved in Opium Trafficking in Southeast Asia . 6Figure 4. Relative Sizes of Land Areas in Mainland Southeast Asia . 7Figure 5. Opium Poppy Cultivation in Southeast Asia . 9Figure 6. Units of Opium Weight in Southeast Asia . 11Figure 7. Units of Heroin Weight in Southeast Asia . 12Figure 8. Extraction of Morphine from Opium . 14Figure 9. Process of Acetylation of Morphine . 14Figure 10. Key Chemicals Used in Heroin Processing . 16Figure 11. Units of Liquid Measurements . 16Figure 12. Conversion Process to Heroin No.3 . 17Figure 13. Conversion Process to Heroin No. 4 . 19Figure 14. Double U-O Globe Trademark of Southeast Asian Heroin . 22. LIST OF MAPS'Map 1.Golden Triangle Area of Southeast Asia . 4Map 2.Opium Poppy Cultivation Areas of Southeast Asia . 20vi
,·.ECUTIVE SUMMARYThe opium poppy has been cultivated in China and mainland Southeast Asia for more thantwo centuries. The mature plant produces a highly addictive latex which may be refined tc·produce opium for smoking, or treated with certain chemicals to produce morphine or heroin.This report focuses on the necessary steps in this process-taking a mature but raw opiumpoppy plant and synthesizing it's contents into finished heroin.This report gives a brief history of the opium poppy plant and analyzes the plant in botanicaldetail. Cultivation methods are described, to include field selection, land clearing and soilpreparation. It further explains the method of extracting morphine from opium, as theoperation typically occurs in clandestine jungle laboratories in Southeast Asia. Finally, theintricate procedures used by heroin chemists to convert morphine to heroin are depicted stepby-step.A glossary of terms related to opium poppy cultivation and heroin processing in SoutheastAsia is included for reference.Vll
. . ORIGIN AND HistORY OFTHE OPIUM pappy , -", .The sole source of opium is the opium poppy. Theplant is believed to have evolved from a wild strain,Papaver setigerum, which grows in coastal areas ofthe Mediterranean Sea. Through centuries of cultivation and breeding for its opium, a species of theplant evolved that is now known as somnijerum.Today, Papaver somnijerum is the only species ofPapaver which produces opium. The genus, Papaver,is the Greek word for "poppy." The species,somnijerum, is Latin for "sleep inducing."The psychological effects of opium may have beenknown to the ancient Sumerians (circa 4000 B.C.)whose symbol for the poppy wus hul ("joy") and gil("plant"). The plant was known in Europe at least4,000 years ago as evidenced by fossil remains ofpoppy seed cake and poppy pods found in the SwissLake Dwellings of the Neolithic Age. Opium wasprobably consumed by the ancient Egyptians andwas known to the Greeks as well. The poppy is alsoreferred to in Homer's works The Iliad and TheOdyssey. In addition, Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.),the father of medicine, recommended drinking thejuice of the white poppy mixed with the seed ofnettle.The opium poppy probably reached China about the7th century A.D. through the efforts of Arab traderswho advocated its use for medicinal purposes. InChinese literature, however, there are earlier references to its use. The noted Chinese surgeon Hua Toof the Three Kingdoms (220-264 A.D.) used opiumpreparations and Cannabis indica for his patients toswallow before undergoing major surgery.The beginning of widespread opium use in China hasbeen associated by some historians with the introduction of tobacco into that country by the Dutchfrom Java in the 17th century. The Chinese werereported to mix opium with tobacco. The practicewas adopted throughout the area and eventuallyresulted in increased opium smoking, both with andwithout tobacco.Flowering poppy plant with two younger flower buds.In 1803, the German pharmacist Serturner isolatedand described the principal alkaloid in opium, whichhe named morphium after Morpheus, the Greek godof dreams. The invention of the syringe and thediscovery of other alkaloids of opium soon followed:codeine in 1832 and papaverine in 1848. By the1850s, the medical use of pure alkaloids rather thancrude opium preparations was common.In the United States, opium preparations becamewidely available in the 19th century and morphinewas used extensively as a painkiller for wounded 1
soldiers during the Civil War. The inevitable resultwas opium addiction, contemporarily called "thearmy disease" or "soldier's disease." These opiumand morphine abuse problems prompted a scientificsearch for potent but nonaddictive painkillers. In the1870s, chemists developed an opium-based and supposedly non-addictive substitute for morphine. TheBayer pharmaceutical company of Germany was thefirst to produce the new drug in large quanti ties underthe brand name Heroin. This product was obtainedby the acetylation of morphine. Soon thereafterstudies showed heroin to have narcotic and addictiveproperties far exceeding those of morphine.1Although heroin has been used in the United Kingdom in the treatment of the terminally ill, its "medicalvalue" is a subject of intense controversy.THE OPIUM POppyPapaver somniferumHEIGHT RANGEOF FULLY-GROWNOPIUM POf'P'( PlANT.1.0-t5 METERS(3-5 FEET)FULLY-C:;RO\'MU.I--OPIUM POPF'Y FLOWER(4 PETALS ENCLOSE MATURING POD) \-OIII--MAIN STEMMATUREQI'IUM Poppy POD.OR "SEED POD""CAPSULE""BULB""POPPY HEAD"SECONDARY STEM(''TILLER")LEAFFigure No.1. Basic Parts of the Opium Poppy Plant.2
.,.THt;: QPIUM POppyPLANT.' . 'The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is an annualplant. From a small seed, it grows, flowers, and bearsfruit (a "pod") only once. The entire growth cycle formost varieties of this plant takes about 120 days. Thetiny seeds, like the seeds on a poppy seed roll,germinate quickly in warmth and sufficient moisture. In less than six weeks, the young plant emergesfrom the soil, grows a set of four leaves, and resembles a small cabbage in appearance. The lobed,dentate lc;aves are glaucous green with a dull gray orblue tint.uWithin two months, the plant will grow from one totwo feet in height, with one primary, long, smoothstem. The upper portion of this stem is withoutleaves and is called the "peduncle" (see Figure 1).One or more secondary stems, called "tillers," maygrow from the main stem of the plant. Single poppyplants in Southeast Asia often have one or moretillers.stem of a fully-matured Papaversomniferum ranges between two and five feet inheight. The green leaves are oblong, toothed andlobed and vary between four to fifteen inches indiameter at maturity. The matured leaves have nocommercial value except for use as animal fodder.The mainAs the plant grows tall, the main stem and every tillerterminates in a flower bud. During the developmentofthe bud, the peduncle portion of the stem elongatesand forms a distinctive "hook" which causes the budto be turned upside down. As the flower develops,the peduncle straightens and the buds point upward.A day ortwo after the buds first point upward, the twoouter segments of the bud, called "sepals," fall away,exposing the flower petals. The exposed flowerblossom is at first crushed an:.' crinkled, but the petalssoon expand and become smooth in the sun. Poppyflowers have four petals. The petals may be single ordouble and are either white, pink, reddish purple,crimson red, or variegated.Opium poppies generally flower after about 90 daysof growth and continue to flower for two to threeweeks. The petals last for two to four days and thendrop to reveal a small, round, green fruit whichcontinues to develop. These fruits or pods (alsocalled "seedpods," "capsules," "bulbs," or "poppyheads") are either oblate, elongated, or globular andmature to about the size of a chicken egg. The oblateshaped pods are more common in Southeast Asia.Only the pod portion of the plant can produce opiumalkaloids. The skin of the poppy pod encloses thewall of the pod ovary. The ovary wall consists ofthree layers: the outer, middle and inner layers. Theplant's latex (opium) is produced within the ovarywall and drains into the middle layer through asystem of vessels and tubes within the pod. The cellsof the middle layer secrete more than 95 percent ofthe opium when the pod is scored and harvested.Cultivators tap the opium from each pod while itremains on the plant. After the opium is scraped, thepods are cut from the stem and allowed to dry. Oncedry, the pods are cut open and the seeds areremoved and dried in the sun before storing for thefollowing year's planting. An altematitive methodof collecting planting seeds is to collect them fromintentionally unscored pods, because scoring maydiminish the quality of the seeds. Aside from beingused as planting seed, the poppy seeds may also beused in cooking and in the manufacture of paints andperfumes. Poppy seed oil is straw-yellow in color,odorless, and has a pleasant, almond-like taste.3
IShan StateKachin StateKokang AreaJim-1itYunnan Province. Tllllll \I111Chiang Mlli ProvinceChiang Rai ProvinceMae Hong Son ProvinceNan ProvinceTak ProvinceLaosdtBiilIiGiIll':Louangnamtha ProvinceBokco ProvinceL uangphabang ProvinceOudomxai ProvincePhong Sali ProvinceXaignabouli ProvinceXiangkhoang ProvinceHouaphan Province.:Vll'l1lalllSon La ProvinceFigure No.2. Major Opium Poppy Growing Areas in Southeast Asia.4
-----------22.,.'OPIUM POppyGROWING AREASThe opium poppy does best in temperate, warmclimates with low humidity and requires only amoderate amount of water before and during theearly stages of growth. In addition, the opium poppyis a "long day" photo-responsive plant. As such,poppies require long days ai1d short nights beforethey will develop flowers.The opium poppy plant can be grown in a variety ofsoils-clay, sandy loam, sandy, and sandy clay-butit grows best in a sandy loam soil. This type of soilhas good moisture-retentive and nutrient-retentiveproperties, is easily cultivated and has a favorablestructure for root development. Clay soil types arehard and difficult to pulverize into a good soil texture. The roots of a young poppy plant cannot readilypenetrate clay soils, and growth is inhibited. Sandysoil, by contrast, does not retain sufficient water ornutrients for proper growth of the plant.Excessive moisture or extremely arid conditions willadversely affect the poppy plant's growth, thus reducingthe alkaloid content Poppy plants can becomewaterlogged and die after a heavy rainfall in poorlydrained soil. Heavy rainfall in tlle second and thirdmonths of growth can leach alkaloids from the plantand spoil the harvest. Dull, rainy, or cloudy weatherduring this growth stage may reduce both the quantity and the quality of the alkaloid content.The major legal opium poppy growing areas in theworld today are ingovemment-regulated opium farmsin India, Turkey and Tasmania, Australia. The majorillegal growing areas are in the highlands of mainland Southeast Asia, specifically Burma, Laos andThailand (the Golden Triangle), as well as adjacentareas of southern China and northwestern Vietnam(see Figure 2 and Map 1); in Southwest Asia, specifically Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan and in Mexico.Opium poppy is also grown in Lebanon, Guatemala,and Colombia.Opium poppies were widely grown as anomamentalplant and for seeds in the United States until thepossession of this plant was declared illegal in theOpium Poppy Control Act of 1942.The highlands of mainland Southeast Asia, at elevations of 800 meters or more above sea level, areprime poppy growing areas. Generally speaking,these poppy-farming areas do not require irrigation,fertilizer, or insecticides for successful opium yields.Most of the opium poppies of Southeast Asia aregrown in Burma (Myanmar), specifically in the Waand Kokang areas which are in the northeasternquadrant of the Shan State of Burma. Laos is thesecond-largest illicit opium-producing country inSoutheast Asia and third-largest in the world. In thiscountry, poppy is cultivated extensively in Houaphanand Xiangkhoang Provinces, in addition to the sixnorthern provinces of Bokeo, Louangnamtha,Louangpnabang, Oudomxai, Phongsali andXaignabouli. Poppy is also grown in many of theremote, mountainous areas of northern Thailand,particularly in Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Mae HongSon, Nan and Tak Provinces.In China, opium poppies are cultivated by ethnicminority groups in the mountainous frontier regionsof Yunnan Province, particularly along the borderarea with Burma's Kachin and Shan States. Son LaProvince, situated between China and Laos, is amajor opium poppy cultivation area in Vietnam.It is noteworthy that the dominant ethnic groups ofmainland Southeast Asia are Tlot poppy cultivators.The Burmans and Shan of Burma, the Lao of Laos,the Thai of Thailand, the Han Chinese of Yunnan,China, and the Vietnamese of Vietnam arelowlandersand do not traditionally cultivate opium poppies.Rather, it is the ethnic minority highlander groups,such as the Wa, Pa-O, Palaung, Lahu, Lisu, Hmong,and Akha who grow poppies in the highlands of thecountries of Southeast Asia. (See Figure 3.)5
A typical nuclear family of Southeast Asian highlanders ranges between five and ten persons, includingtwo to five adults. An average household of poppyfanners can cultivate and harvest about one acre ofopium poppy per year. Most of the better fields cansupport opium poppy cultivation for ten years ormore without fertilization, inigation, orinsecticides,before the soil is depleted and new fields must becleared.Opium PoppyGrowers & SmokersKachin; Palaung; Wa;Lahu (Musser, Musoe);Lisu (Lisor, Lisaw);Akha (I-kor, I-kaw);Hmong (Moo, Miao);Mien (Iu Mien. Yao); et al.t)pium Traders & Middlemen'Kachin; Palaung; Wa;Shan (Tai Yai); unnanese Chinese (Haw);Guokang Chinese (Kokang);Lahu (Musser, Musoe); Lisu (Lisor, Lisaw);Akha (I-kor, I-kaw);Hmong (Meo, Miao); Mien (Iu Mien. Yao);Lao; Thai; el al.Figure 3. Ethnic groups involved in opium and heroin trafficking in Southeast Asia.6
·-.FIELD SELECTION ANDLAND CLEARING.In choosing a field to grow opium poppy, soil qualityand acidity are critical factors and experiencedpoppy fanners choose their fields carefully. InSoutheast Asia, westerly orientations are typicallypreferred to optimize sun exposure. Most fields areon mountain slopes at elevations of 1,000 meters(3,000 feet) ormore above sealevel. Slope gradientsof 20 degrees to 40 degrees are considered best fordrainage .;f rain water.In Mainland Southeast Asia, virgin land is preparedThe slash-and-bum method is also used to clearfields for poppy cultivation. Before the rainy seasonin April, fields by the hundreds of thousands all overthe region are set ablaze. A fog-like yellow hazehangs over the area for weeks, reducing visibility forhundreds of miles. In the mountains, the density ofhaze blocks out the sun and stings the eyes.A typical highlander family will plant an area of twoor three rai in opium poppy (2.53 rai is equivalent toone acre). (See Figure 4.)by cutting and piling all brush, vines and small treesin the field during March. at the end of the dry season.After allowing the brush to dry in the hot sun forseveral days, the field is set afire. This method,called "slash-and bum" or "swidden" agriculture, iscommonly practiced by dry field fanners - bothhighland and lowland - throughout Mainland Southeast Asia in order to ready the land for a variety offield crops.USA FOOTDAIl. FElD4,4.S9oqmcb:n0.533 b::ctanl1.11 Ia"CI2.79ml2.46acrerai 6Cf1lrai0.160hectare0.397acre1.00raiFigure 4. Relative sizes of land areas in mainland Southeast Asia.7
ILAND PREPARATION 'ANDCULTIVATION METHODS .In August or September, toward the end of the rainyseason, highland farmers in Southeast Asia preparefields selected for opium poppy planting. By thistime, the ash resulting from the bum-off of theprevious dry season has settled into the soil, providing additional nutrients, especially potash. The soilis turned with long-handled hoes after it is softenedby the rains. The farmers then break up the largeclumps of soil. Weeds and stones are tossed asideand the ground is leveled off.The opium poppy seed can be sown several ways:broadcast or tossed by hand; or fix-dropped by handinto shallow holes dug with a metal-tipped dibblestick. About one pound of opium poppy seed isneeded to sow one acre of land. The seeds may bewhite, yellow, coffee-color, gray, black, or blue.Seed color is not related to the color of the flowerpetals. Beans, cabbages, cotton, parsley, spinach,squash or tobacco are usually planted with opiumpoppy. These crops neither help nor hinder thecultivation of the opium poppy, but instead areplanted solely for personal consumption or as a cashcrop.In the highlands of Southeast Asia, it is also commonTraditionally, most highland and upland farmers inSoutheast Asia do not use fertilizer for any of theircrops, including the opium poppy, but in recent yearsopium poppy farmers have started using both naturaland chemical fertilizers to increase opium poppyyields. Chicken manure, human feces orthe regions 'sabundant bat droppings are often mixed into theplanting soil before the opium poppy seed is planted.The planting must be completed by the end of October in order to take advantage ofthe region's "longdays" in November and December. (See Figure 5.)practice to plant maize and opium poppies in thesame fields each year. The maize keeps downexcessive weeds and provides feed for the farmer'spigs and ponies. It is grown from April to August.After harvesting the maize, and with the stalks stillstanding in the fields, the ground is weeded andpulverized. Just before the end of the rainy season, insuccessive sowings throughout September and October, the poppy seed is broadcast among the maizestalks. These stalks can protect young opium poppyplants from heavy rains.Opium poppy field cleared by "slash-and-burn" method.8
HARVESTINGLANDPREPARATIONCOLD SEASON·RAINYSEASON[SEPQCTNOVDECJANFEBFigure 5. Opium poppy cultivation in Southeast Asia.The opium poppy plants fonn leaves in the firstgrowth stage, called the "cabbage" or "lettuce" stage.After a month of growth. when the opium poppy isabout a foot high, some of the plants are removed(called "thinning") to allow the others more room togrow. The ideal spacing between plants is believedto be 20 to 40 centimeters, or about eight to twelveplants per square meter, although some researchersin northern Thailand have reported as many as 18plants per square meter.During the first two months, the opium poppies maybe damaged or stunted by nature through the lack ofadequate sunshine, excessive rainfall, insects, wonns,hail stonns, early frost, or trampling by animals. Thethird month of growth does not require as much careas the first two months.Three to four months after planting, from late December to efl.:ly February, the opium poppies are infull bloom. Mature plants range between three tofive feet in height. Most opium poppy varieties inSoutheast Asia produce three to five mature pods perplant.A typical opium poppy field has 60,000 to 120,000poppy plants per hectare, with a range of 120,000 to275,000 opium-producing pods. The actual opiumyield will depend largely on weather conditions andthe precautions taken by individual farmers tosafeguard the crop. The fanner and his familygenerally move into the field for the fmal two weeks,setting up a small field hut on the edge of the opiumpoppy field.Opium poppy field showingflowers, pods and leaves.9
",,'OPIUM HARVESTING METHODSThe scoring of the pods (also called "lancing," "incising," or "tapping") begins aout two weeks afterthe flower petals fall fromthe pods. The farmerexamines the pod and the tiny crown (see Figure 1)portion on the top of the pod very carefully beforescoring. The grayish-green pod will become a darkgreen color as it matures and it will swell in size. Ifthe points ofthe pod's crown are standing straight outor are cuved upward, HIe pod is ready to be scored. Ifthe crown's points turn downward, the pod is not yetfully matured. Not all the plants in a field will beready for scoring at the same time and each pod canbe tapped more than once.A set of three or four small blades of iron, glass, orglass splinters bound tightly together on a woodenhandle is used to score two or three sides of the podin a vertical direction. If the blades cut too deep intothe wall of the pod, the opium will flow too quicklyand will drip to tiie ground. If the incisions are tooshallow, the flow will be too slow and the opium willharden in the pods. A depth of about one millimeteris desired for the incision. Using a blade-tool designed to cut to that depth, scoring ideally starts inlate afternoon so the white latex-like raw opium canooze out and slowly coagulate on the surface of thepod overnight If the scoring begins too early in theafternoon, the sun will cause tlle opium to coagulateover the incision and block the flow. The opiumoxiqizes, darkens and thickens in the cool night air.Early the next morning, the opium gum is scrapedfrom the surface ofthe pods with a short-handled flat,iron blade three to four inches wide.Opium harvesters work their way backwards acrossthe field scoring lower, mature pods before the tallerpods, soasnotto inadvertently spill thesticky ooze.The pods will continue to secrete opium for severaldays. Fanners will return to these plants-- sometimes up to five or six times-to gather additionalopium until the pod is totally depleted. The opium iscollected in a container which hangs from the farmer'sneck or waist10The opium yield from a single pod varies greatly,ranging from 10to 100 milligrams of opium per pod.The average yield is about 80 milligrams. The dliedopium weight yield per hectare of opium poppiesranges between eight and fifteen kilograms of opium.As the faffilers gather the opium, tlle larger or moreproductive pods are tagged with colored string oryarn. These pods will later be cut from their stems,cut open, dried in the sun and their seeds will be usedfor the following year's planting.The wet opium gum collected from the pods containsa relatively high amount of water and needs to bedried for several days. High-quality raw opium willbe brown (rather than black) in color and will retainits sticky texture. Experienced opium traders canquickly deteffiline if the opium has been mixed withtree sap, sand or other such materials.Raw opium in Burma, Laos and Thailand is usuallysun-dried, weighed in a standard 1.6 kilogram quantity (called a "viss" in Burma; a "choi" in Laos andThailand), wrapped in banana leaf orplastic and thenstored until ready to sell, trade, or smoke. Opiumsmoking is common among most adult opium poppyfarmers, whereas heavy addiction is generally limited to older, male farmers. The average yearlyconsumption of cooked opium per smoker is estimated to be 1.6 kilograms.A typical opium poppy farmer household in Southeast 'Asia will collect 2 to 5 choi or viss (3 to 9kilograms) of opium from a year's harvest of a oneacre field. That opium will be dried, wrapped andstacked on a shelf by February or March. If theopium has been properly dried, it can be storedindefinitely. Excessive moisture and heat can causethe opium to deteriorate but, once dried, opium isrelatively stable. In fact, as opium dries and becomesless pliable, its value increases due to the decrease inwater weight per kilogram.
Standard Units oj Weight used inOpium Trafficking in Southeast Asia.E h:: ; ;" . lib. : :::r :::: : I:,1 jinlchin (Chinese)Ikg.\", kilosram::[Choi/jOi (Thai-Shall-Lao)i] [yisS(Tamil-Burmese)I"toninmetric tonI 1.1023 lbs.I:,:1,000.0 gms·1 2.2046Ibs:.Ii:500.0 gms.IIIT:1.6 kgs. "1.657 kgs.I3.528 lbs . ./;:3.652Ibs.Opium poppy pod scored for harvesting.Nole the opium oozing
Office of Intelligence Washington, DC 20537 (202) 307-8100 September 1992 . ADMINISTRATOR·S MESSAGE Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia reviews in detail several . plant is believed to have evolved from a wild strain, Papaver setigerum, which grows in coastal areas of .
Imperialism in China: The Opium Wars & Boxer Rebellion Opium was used recreationally and medically in China starting in the 15th Century Opium was prohibited in 1729 British start to smuggle opium from India into China 1835 12 million Chinese addicted to opium 12 – 15% of the Chinese population
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