ANP201 Lecture Notes
ANP201 Physiology of Growth HomeostasisLecture Notes : Compiled from various sources by Prof. O.A. OsinowoDepartment of Animal Physiology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, NigeriaMarch, 20141
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH What is growth?Growth is a characteristic of living things andcan be defined as an increase in body size ormass of part or all of the body over a specificperiod of time.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components2
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd. Growth results from any or all of the followingprocesses:– Increase in body weight till mature size is reached– Increase in cell number and size accompanied byprotein deposition– Increase in structural tissues and organs.Structural tissues include: Bone Muscle Other connective tissues such as fat, tendons, etc.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components3
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd. DevelopmentDevelopment often accompanies growth as cellsand tissues become differentiated, increasing incomplexity. Development involves the directivecoordination of all diverse processes untilmaturity is reached. It involves:– Growth– Cellular differentiation– Changes in body shape and formANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components4
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd. Growth and DevelopmentIn studying growth and development inmammals, two broad stages are considered,namely the: Prenatal (before birth), and Postnatal (after birth), periods.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components5
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.Prenatal growth and development1. Tissues arise from three embryonic cell layersA. Endoderm--Digestive tract, Lungs, and BladderB. Mesoderm--Skeleton, Skeletal muscle, and Connective tissuesC. Ectoderm--Skin, Hair, Brain, Spinal CordANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components6
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.7
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.2. The nucleus directsthe growth anddevelopmentprocess by geneexpressionA. Transcription DNA to mRNAB. Translation mRNA to ProteinANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components8
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.3. Order of tissue growth follows a sequentialtrend determined by physiological importanceA. Central Nervous SystemB. BonesC. TendonsD. MusclesE. Inter-muscular FatF. Subcutaneous FatANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components9
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.Muscle Growth and Development1. Embryonic Skeletal Muscle DevelopmentA. Develop from embryonic masses of mesoderm called somitesa. Myotome --Portion of somite that differentiates into muscle cellsb. Located dorsally along axial skeletonc. Spread between skin and body cavity on left and right sidesd. Doesn't include muscles of head and limbsB. Head musclesa. Develop from mesoderm of that regionC. Limbsa. Develop from mesoderm that migrates to limb budsANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components10
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.D. Myoblastsa. Precursors to muscle cellsb. Fibroblast-likec. Fuse to form multi-nucleated muscle fibersd. Myoblast fusion is how cells grow in lengthE. Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF)a. Controls Myoblastsb. Stimulate proliferation and inhibit fusionc. Removal stimulates fusion and differentiationANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components11
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.2. Prenatal Muscle GrowthA. Hyperplasiaa. Increase in number of fibersb. First 2 trimestersB. Hypertrophya. Increase in size of fibersb. Last trimesterANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components12
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.3. Postnatal Muscle Growth and DevelopmentA. Total number of fibers (Muscle cells) are obtained prenatallyB. Increases in lengtha. Myoblasts added to ends of multinucleated fibersC. Increase in size of fibersa. Increase in size and number of myofibrilsb. Due to Protein synthesis (Gene Expression)D. Muscle Repaira. Dormant myoblasts called satellite cellsb. Stimulated by FGFANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components13
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.Connective Tissue Growth and Development1. FibroblastsA. Precursor to Connective tissue cellsa. Osteocytes (-blasts)b. Adipocytesc. Smooth Muscle cellse. ChondrocytesB. Secrete components of connective tissuea. Fibersi. Collagen Fibersii. Elastic Fibersiii. Reticular Fibersb. Ground Substancei. Fluid to Gel to SolidC. Stimulated by a number of growth factorsANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components14
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.2. Adipocytes (Fat Cells)A. Store Fata. Energy ReserveB. Differentiationa. Lipogenic Enzyme Production (Gene Expression)b. Accumulation of fat dropletsc. Coalescence of fat droplets into one large dropletC. Hormonal Controla. Growth hormone--Stimulates Differentiationb. Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF)--Stimulates Proliferationc. Insulin--Stimulates lipogenesisd. Glucagon--Stimulate lipolysisANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components15
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.3. Postnatal Fat DepositionA. Four major deposits of fata. Subcutaneous fati. Under the skinii. Backfatb. Intermuscular fati. Between musclesii. Seam fatc. Intramuscular fati. Within musclesii. Marblingd. Abdominal Fati. Mostly around kidneys and in pelvisB. Order of fat depositiona. Abdominalb. Intermuscularc. Subcutaneousd. IntramuscularANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components16
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.4. Growth and Development of BoneA. Early Development of bone--Embryonic connective tissue is transformed by two methodsa. Intramembranous Ossificationi. Skull bonesii. Formation of bone from mesodermb. Endochondral Ossificationi. Most bones in bodyii. Formation of bone from hyaline cartilageB. Increase in Bone Lengtha. Cartilage Cellsi. Undergo mitosisii. Increase size of epiphyseal plateb. Epiphyseal Platei. Diaphysis side undergoes calcificationii. Increase length of boneANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components17
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.C. Hormones that effect bone growth.a. Parathyroid hormone--Bone reabsorptionb. Calcitonin--Bone formationc. Growth Hormone--Bone Growthd. Sex Steroids--Cause union of the epiphysis withthe diaphysis of long bones,ceasing growth of long bonese. Growth FactorsANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components18
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.Measurement of growthGrowth parameters such as height, length, mass,volume and number when plotted against timegive rise to sigmoid or S-shaped curves of the typeshown in Fig. 1.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components19
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.Figure 1. Growth curveANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components20
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.A Sigmoid curve can be divided into the following four phases: Lag phase, during which little growth occurs Logarithmic or log phase, during which growth proceeds exponentially.During this phase the rate of growth accelerates and at any point isproportional to the amount of material or number of cells already present.In all cases of growth the exponential increase eventually declines and therate of growth begins to decrease. The point at which this occurs is knownas the inflexion point, which represents the maximum rate of growth. Decelerating phase, during which growth becomes limited as a result ofthe effect of some internal or external factor, or the interaction of both Plateau or stationary phase. This phase usually marks the period whereoverall growth has ceased and the parameter under consideration remainsconstant.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components21
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.Growth Curves1. Curves are sigmoidal in shape2. Bone, muscle, and fat are the tissues of primaryconcern in the livestock industry3. Order of tissue maturityA. BoneB. MuscleC. FatANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components22
PHYSIOLOGY OF GROWTH, contd.4. Factors effecting growthA. Maturation ratea. Late maturing grow moreB. Sexa. Intact males heavier and leaner at a given age thancastrates and females--Mature laterb. Castrates tend to be heavier and leaner than females--Mature slightly laterC. Nutritiona. Good nutrition needed for proper growth anddevelopmentb. Excess Protein or energy feed increase fattening in thelivestock industry.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components23
HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis is the maintenance of constantinternal environment. Ability to maintain asteady state within a constantly changingenvironment is essential for the survival of aliving system.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components24
HOMEOSTASIS, contd In order to maintain the condition, organismsfrom the simplest to the most complex havedeveloped a variety of structural, physiologicaland behavioural mechanisms designed tomaintain the preservation of a constant internalenvironment. Organisms live within an external environment,while individual cells of the organism live in aninternal environment which in mammals is tissuefluid.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components25
HOMEOSTASIS, contd Homeostatic mechanisms maintain thestability of the cell environment and theyprovide the organism with a degree ofindependence of the environment. They prevent large fluctuations from theoptimum which are caused by changes inexternal and internal environments.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components26
HOMEOSTASIS, contd Organisms which are able to maintain relativelyconstant levels of activity despite fluctuation inenvironmental condition are referred to as‘Regulators’.– They are able to exploit a wider range ofenvironments and habitats. Examples are mammalsand flowering plants. “Non-Regulators” tend to be confined toenvironments which are more stable, such asoceans or lakes.– Examples are seaweeds and phytoplankton.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components27
HOMEOSTASIS, contd Control systems in biology– Living systems are “Open System”; they require acontinuous exchange of matter between theenvironment and themselves.– They are in a steady state with their environmentbut require a continuous input of energy in orderto prevent them coming to equilibrium with theenvironment.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components28
HOMEOSTASIS, contdBasic components of a control system The ‘Regulator’ in mammals is either an endocrine glandproducing hormone or part of the nervous system, oftenthe brain or spinal cord.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components29
HOMEOSTASIS, contd Components of a Homeostatic Control SystemANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components30
HOMEOSTASIS, contd Any change from the set-point activates the controlsystems and returns conditions towards their optimumlevel.– As conditions return to the optimum the correctiveprocesses can be switched off, a process known as‘Negative Feedback’. There are 2 forms of feedback,– “negative” and– “positive”, Negative feedback is more common. Negative feedback is associated with increasing thestability of system.– If the system is disturbed, the disturbance sets in motion asequence of events which tends to restore the system toits original state.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components31
HOMEOSTASIS, contd Examples of biological negative feedback mechanisminclude the control of:– Oxygen and CO2 levels in the blood by controlling rate anddepth of breathing– Heart rate– Blood pressure– Hormone levels, e. g sex hormones, thyroxin– Metabolite levels, e. G. Glucose– Water balance– Regulation of PH– Body temperature Example of positive feedback mechanism is the increasedmuscular contractions during parturition.ANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components32
HOMEOSTASIS, contd33
HOMEOSTASIS, contd34
HOMEOSTASIS, contdANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components35
HOMEOSTASIS, contd36
HOMEOSTASIS, contd37
HOMEOSTASIS, contdExample ritionANP 201: Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals –Growth and Homeostasis Components38
ANP201 Physiology of Growth Homeostasis Lecture Notes : Compiled from various sources by Prof. O.A. Osinowo Department of Animal Physiology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
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