Oil And Oilseed Processing - .e-bookshelf.de

Contents9.59.6ix9.4.3Oxalic Acid 1949.4.4Erucic and Brassidic Acids 1949.4.5Carbohydrates with Antinutritional Properties 1959.4.6Other Antinutritional Factors 195Current Applications in the Valorization of Oilseed by‐Products 1959.5.1Vegetable Proteins Source 1959.5.2Natural Antioxidants and Preservatives 1969.5.3Organic Fertilizer 1969.5.4Livestock Diets 1979.5.5Renewable Energy 197Future Trends 198References 19910 Proteins and Peptides Derived from Rapeseed: Techno-Functional andBioactive Properties Maria Hayes20310.1 Introduction 20310.2 Summary of Existing Rapeseed Meal Protein Extraction Processes 20410.3 Hydrolysis of Rapeseed Proteins and Rapeseed Meal to Produce High ValueBioactive Compounds 20510.4 Techno‐Functional Attributes of Rapeseed Proteins 20610.4.1 Emulsifying Properties 20610.4.2 Digestibility of Rapeseed Proteins 20710.4.3 Solubility 20810.5 Bioactivities of Rapeseed Protein Hydrolysates and Identified Bioactive Peptides 20910.5.1 Heart Health Benefits – Inhibition of Enzymes Associated withCardiovascular Disease 20910.5.2 Anti‐Proliferative Activity of Rapeseed Meal Hydrolysates/Fermentates 21310.6 Safety of Rapeseed Proteins and Hydrolysates 21310.7 Conclusion 213References 21411Oils and Oilseeds in the Nutraceutical and Functional Food Industries Manuel Suárez, Andreu Gual-Grau, Javier Ávila-Román, Cristina Torres-Fuentes,Miquel Mulero, Gerard Aragonès, Francisca Isabel Bravo and Begoña Muguerza11.1 Introduction 11.2 Functional Food and Nutraceuticals 11.2.1 Definition 11.2.2 Regulation 11.3 Vegetable and Seed Oils as Source of Bioactive Compounds 11.3.1 Saponifiable Fraction 11.3.2 Unsaponifiable Fraction 11.4 Bioactivity of Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds 11.4.1 Olive Oil 11.4.2 Sunflower Oil 11.4.3 Corn Oil 11.4.4 Palm Oil 11.4.5 Peanut Oil 11.4.6 Avocado Oil 11.4.7 Linseed Oil 219219220220221221221222228228229229230230231231

x11.5Contents11.4.8 Sesame Oil 23211.4.9 Canola Oil/Rapeseed 232New Trends and Applications 233References 23512 Sensorial Evaluation and Aroma of Vegetable Oils Gemma Echeverria, Chloe Leclerc, Jordi Giné-Bordonaba and Agustí 3255256257260261264265267268270Introduction Olive Oil Palm Oil Soybean Oil Sun Flower Seed Oil Corn Oil Peanut Oil Coconut Oil Linseed/Flaxseed Oil Canola or Rapeseed Hazelnut Oil Avocado Oil Almond Oil Pistachio Oil Sesame Oil Walnut Oil References Index 279

PrefaceOils are essential components and the largest source of commercial oils is oilseeds,which include the seeds of annual plants. This book comprises various segments –from the evaluation of different oil sources to aspects related to quality and safety, oiland oilseed processing and applications. The production of oil from oilseeds has beensteadily increasing over the past 20 years. This book provides an intense review of theoilseeds and oils in the human diet and surveys current and future trends. The bookalso reviews vegetable and animal‐derived oils together with novel sources for oilproduction that are of interest for industrial applications because of their similarity toplant oils and for their economic overproduction of seed oils and nutritional value.Safety concerns regarding fungal occurrence and mycotoxin, pesticide, and heavymetals contamination in agri‐food commodities is an important issue. The most common contaminants detected in oil and oilseed and current legislation on mycotoxin,pesticide, and heavy metal contamination of foods is discussed. In addition, as themaximum allowed concentration of some of these compounds is extremely low, theirdetection and determination is investigated, focusing on the use of chromatographictechniques and mass spectrometry. Current applications and future perspectives forthe utilization of these techniques in the food and non‐food industry are presented.Finally, safety concerns regarding oil and oilseed processing and waste valorization isan issue of great concern and is discussed in depth in this book.The authors of the chapters are international leading experts in the fields covered inthe book and we would like to thank all of them for their valuable contributions.Tomás LafargaGloria BoboIngrid Aguiló‐AguayoEditors

List of ContributorsIngrid Aguiló‐Aguayo, IRTA, Postharvest Pogramme, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científici Tecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Lleida, SpainGerard Aragonès, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica iBiotecnologia, Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, SpainJavier Ávila‐Román, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica iBiotecnologia, Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, SpainGloria Bobo, IRTA, Postharvest Pogramme, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científic iTecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Lleida, SpainFrancisca Isabel Bravo, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica iBiotecnologia, Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, SpainAmérica Chávez‐Martínez, Faculty of Zootechnics and Ecology, AutonomousUniversity of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoGemma Echeverria, IRTA, Postharvest Program, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científic iTecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Lleida, Catalonia, SpainMaría Antonia Flores‐Córdova, Faculty of Agrotechnological Sciences, AutonomousUniversity of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoJan Fritsche, Institute of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products, Max Rubner‐Institute, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Kiel, GermanyNirupama Gangopadhyay, Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute ofTechnology Delhi, New Delhi, India

xivList of ContributorsMarco Garcia‐Vaquero, School of Agriculture and Food Science, University CollegeDublin, Dublin, IrelandTEAGASC, Food Research Centre, Dublin, IrelandAntonia Garrido‐Frenich, Department of Chemistry and Physics, AnalyticalChemistry Area, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems andAgri‐Food Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of InternationalExcellence ceiA3, University of Almería, Almería, SpainEditha Giese, Institute of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products, Max Rubner‐Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Kiel, GermanyDepartment of Life Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences (HAWHamburg), Hamburg, GermanyJordi Giné‐Bordonaba, IRTA, Postharvest Program, Edifici Fruitcentre, ParcCientífic i Tecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Lleida, Catalonia, SpainAndreu Gual‐Grau, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica iBiotecnologia, Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, SpainNéstor Gutiérrez‐Méndez, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Autonomous University ofChihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoDouglas G. Hayes, Department of Biosystems Engineering and Soil Science,University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USAMaria Hayes, Food BioSciences Department, Teagasc Food Research Centre,Ashtown, Dublin, IrelandJosé L. Hidalgo‐Ruiz, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Analytical ChemistryArea, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agri‐FoodBiotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of International ExcellenceceiA3, University of Almería, Almería, SpainBrijesh K. Tiwari, TEAGASC Food Research Centre, Dublin, IrelandTomás Lafarga, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería,Almería, SpainChloe Leclerc, IRTA, Postharvest Program, Edifici Fruitcentre, Parc Científic iTecnològic Agroalimentari de Lleida, Lleida, Catalonia, SpainJosé Luis Martínez‐Vidal, Department of Chemistry and Physics, AnalyticalChemistry Area, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems andAgri‐Food Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of InternationalExcellence ceiA3, University of Almería, Almería, SpainBegoña Muguerza, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica iBiotecnologia, Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, Spain

List of ContributorsxvMiquel Mulero, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica iBiotecnologia, Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, SpainIolanda Nicolau‐Lapeña, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida (UDL),Lleida, SpainRamona Pérez‐Leal, Faculty of Agrotechnological Sciences, Autonomous Universityof Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoMaría Janeth Rodríguez‐Roque, Faculty of Agrotechnological Sciences, AutonomousUniversity of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoAgustí Romero, IRTA, Oliviculture, Oil Science, and Nuts, Mas de Bover, Constantí,Tarragona, SpainRoberto Romero‐González, Department of Chemistry and Physics, AnalyticalChemistry Area, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems andAgri‐Food Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of InternationalExcellence ceiA3, University of Almería, Almería, SpainNora Aideé Salas‐Salazar, Faculty of Agrotechnological Sciences, AutonomousUniversity of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoRogelio Sánchez‐Vega, Faculty of Zootechnics and Ecology, Autonomous Universityof Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoMayra Cristina Soto‐Caballero, Faculty of Agrotechnological Sciences, AutonomousUniversity of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoManuel Suárez, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia,Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, SpainJuan Manuel Tirado‐Gallegos, Faculty of Zootechnics and Ecology, AutonomousUniversity of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, MéxicoCristina Torres‐Fuentes, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament de Bioquímica iBiotecnologia, Nutrigenomics Research Group, Tarragona, Spain

1Production andConsumption of Oilsand OilseedsTomás LafargaDepartment of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, Almería, Spain1.1IntroductionLipids, which are together with proteins and carbohydrates the main constituents ofplant and animal cells, can be broadly defined as substances such as fats, oils, or waxesthat dissolve in organic solvents but not in water. Lipids, oil‐bearing nuts, and animalfats have been used by man for centuries. These were used for lighting, as cosmetics,applied to weapons or other utensils, and as foods, mainly as sources of energy or asmedicines. Nowadays, the use of oils has expanded to several food applications whichinclude cooking, frying, baking shortenings, salad dressing, and flavor carriers, amongothers. Each of these applications requires oils with specific physical and chemicalproperties (Gupta 2017). These properties will therefore determine the quality of thevegetable oil, which starts with high quality oilseeds or oil‐bearing nuts or fruits.Several factors which include maturity of the oilseed, climatic conditions, harvest conditions, handling of the harvested raw material, and storage can significantly affect thequality of the end product.Broadly, oil extraction from seeds or beans is achieved by pressing and/or extractionusing an organic solvent, generally hexane. Mechanical and thermal pre‐treatmentscan also be used to improve extraction yields (Savoire et al. 2013). Other oils such asavocado, palm, or olive oil are obtained after pressing of the whole fruit. Althoughsome oils such as olive oil are used without further treatment than filtering, most ofthe currently commercialized edible oils are refined in some measure prior to commercialization (Gunstone 2011b). The term refining refers to the removal of severalmajor and minor impurities and its main goal is to produce high quality oils with optimal properties to satisfy the different oil applications.Oil production from oilseeds has been steadily increasing by an average of 12.3%annually over the last three decades: for the main oils – palm (palm kernel plus palmOil and Oilseed Processing: Opportunities and Challenges, First Edition.Edited by Tomás Lafarga, Gloria Bobo, and Ingrid Aguiló-Aguayo. 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

2CH1Production and Consumption of Oils and Oilseedsoil), rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower seed oil – there is a production increase of231.1%, from 45.73 Mt in 1990 to 151.42 Mt in 2017 (UN 2019). Despite recentadvances in oil extraction techniques, this impressive increase in oil production couldnot have been achieved without an increase in the quantity of seeds harvested. Indeed,during the same time period, the production of palm fruits, rapeseeds, soybean, andsunflower seeds followed the same trend from 159.29 Mt in 1990 to 794.31 Mt in 2017,representing an 17.7% annual increase (UN 2019).The aim of the current chapter is to give an overview of the production of the mostrelevant vegetable oils and oilseeds, focusing on soybeans, rapeseeds, sunflower seeds,palm fruits, and the oils derived thereof. This chapter will also discuss the productionquantities and trade of other common oilseeds such as groundnuts, maize, or sesameseeds as well as novel sources for oil production that are expected to soon gain anincreased industrial relevance.1.2 Oilseeds and Oils: Production and TradeThe majority of the currently utilized vegetable oils are obtained from seeds or beans.Sources for vegetable oil extraction can be divided into three main categories: (i)those plants that are not grown for oil production, where oil can be considered as aby‐product; (ii) those crops that cannot be changed on a yearly basis, generally trees;and (iii) those crops that are planted annually such as sunflower, linseed, or rape(Gunstone 2011a). Currently, from the total oil and fat production, approximately14% is utilized as a starting material for the oleochemical industry, 79–80% is used forhuman food as spreads, frying oils, or salad oils, and the remaining 6% is used as animal feed, and therefore, indirectly used for human food production (Gunstone 2011a).Crushing of soybeans or oilseeds into cake and oil dominates total usage and it isexpected that 90% of the world soybean production and 86% of world production ofother oilseeds will be crushed in 2027 (FAO 2018). The current section will discusscurrent applications as well as the production and trade of the most important edibleoils and oil sources.1.2.1Copra and Coconut OilCoconut oil is obtained from the fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), a tropical plant normally utilized for edible and non‐edible purposes. Two major types of oilcan be obtained from coconut: (i) coconut or copra oil, which is obtained from thedried coconut flesh, also known as copra, and (ii) virgin coconut oil, obtained fromfresh coconut flesh (Zuknik et al. 2016). Copra oil can be found either unrefined orrefined, bleached, and deodorized (Kumar and Krishna 2015).As a portable source of water (and food), coconuts played an important role in theability of humans to voyage and colonize regions throughout the tropics (Gunnet al. 2011). Currently, coconut is an important crop in tropical countries where itplays an important role in diets and livelihoods (MacDonald et al. 2018). A large number of food products containing coconut oil have been launched into the market during recent years (Table 1.1).Besides being used for frying or as an ingredient in baked goods, coconut oil is currently used for pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications, among others (Kumar and

Table 1.1 Foods manufactured using vegetable (and microalgal) oils.ProductBrandCompanyCountry ofcommercializationOil(s) usedSour cream and onionflavored potato snackRoasted and saltedpeanutsCorn “tostadas”PringlesPringles, USAArgentinaCottonseed and coconut oilPamiPami, GreeceCroatiaCottonseed and sunflower oilMamá LychaProductos Mamá Lycha,USAGeneral Mills, USACanadaSaudi ArabiaCampbell, CanadaCanadaTurkeySpainCottonseed, palm, and/orsoybean oilCottonseed, palm, sunflower,and rapeseed oilCanola, corn, cottonseed, andor/soybean oilSunflower, cottonseed, andpalm oilCottonseed and extra virginolive oilChocolate cake withchocolate toppingTomato soupBetty Crocker MugTreatsCampbell’s Soup atHandNut BariHazelnut cream withcocoa and breadsticksSpicy vegetable tajinewith bulgur, spelt,and raisinsBreakfast cerealsCarrefour VeggieDKC Grup Gida San,TurkeyCarrefour, FranceKellogg’s Froot LoopsKellogg Sales, USAUSACookie covered almonds7‐Select7‐Eleven, USAUSAApple pieRoyal Classic DutchSwitzerlandRice mini squaresKellogg’s Rice KrispiesTreats Mini SquaresEat Smart SaladShake UpsDeSpecialiteitenbakkerij,the NetherlandsKellogg Sales, USAUSASoybean and palm oilApio, USAUSACanola, soybean, andsunflower oilSweet kale saladCoconut, soybean, andcottonseed oilCanola, cottonseed, palmkernel, and/or peanut oilCottonseed, rapeseed, andsunflower oil(Continued )

Table 1.1(Continued)ProductBrandCompanyCountry ofcommercializationOil(s) usedMr Kipling lemon whirlsCookies drizzled inchocolateSpecial bread tapasbiscuitsTaralli biscuitsMr KiplingBake Shop BitesPremier Foods, IrelandCookies United, USAIrelandPuerto RicoQuelyQuely, SpainSpainRapeseed and palm oilPalm kernel oil, hydrogenatedpalm oil, and soybean oilSunflower and olive oilContinental TaralliBiscuitsPurContinental TaralliBiscuits, AustraliaPUR Bio FeinkostManufaktur – HeinzGierze, GermanyThe Yummy TummyCompany, UKConverfrut, ArgentinaMead Johnson, USAAustraliaOlive oilGermanySunflower and olive oilUKOlive oilArgentinaUSAOlive oilSunflower, soybean, coconut,and Schizochytrium sp. oilSchizochytrium sp. oilQuinoa saladTuna saladApple drinkThe Yummy TummyCo,Casa de la TorreEnfamil Neuro ProEnfaCareLife MixEvaporated milkLaive NiñosArtichoke pestoInfant formulaW Pesquisa, Tecnologia eIndústria deAlimentos, BrazilLaive, PeruSource: Data accessed on June 7, 2019 from MINTEL, available at http://www.mintel.com.BrazilPeruMortierella alpine andSchizochytrium sp. oil

1.2Oilseeds and Oils: Production and Trade5Krishna 2015). Over 12.30 Mha of coconut are currently planted across 89 tropicalcountries, mainly in Asia (Gunn et al. 2011) – Figure 1.1. Coconut plantations can nowbe found on practically every tropical and sub‐tropical coastline worldwide, distributed mainly in coastal regions between 20 N and 20 S (Ramanatha Rao et al. 2005).Coconuts are even cultivated far from the coast in many regions with adequate rainfall and altitude (Foale 2005). Over 95% of the farmers who grow coconuts are smallholders tending less than four hectares and lack the resources to invest in technologiesthat would improve production yields (Batugal et al. 2005). However, production andconsumption of coconut oil is expected to increase in coming years and production ofvirgin coconut oil shows potential for improving coconut farm incomes by five toeightfold over traditional copra production (Bawalan and Chapman 2006).Production of coconut oil during 2014 was estimated as 3.10 Mt (UN 2019). During theperiod 2018/2019, coconut oil production was reported to be 3.63 Mt (USDA 2019).Approximately 2.70 Mt of coconut oil were produced in Asia, representing approximatelyCOCONUT 2,663.0 42,687.0COTTONSEEDS 263,398.0 1,800.0 45,000.0LINSEEDS 404,0 4,165.0 690,908.0 9.903.0 22,044.0 16,255.0 1,556.0 74,123.0 14,591,343.0 7,894.0 54,824.0 165,270.0 3,015,316.0 102,441.0 461,842.0 1,685.0 116,231.0 1,039.117.0SAFFLOWER SEEDS 1,146,224.0SOYBEANS 2,012.0 66,060.0OLIVESRAPESEEDSSESAME SEEDS 749.0 218,200.0MAIZEPALM FRUITS 74,300.0GROUNDNUT (WITH SHELL) 7,894.0 165,270.0 1,146.224.0SUNFLOWER SEEDS 351,416.0 6,178.0 20,814.0 1,620,000.0Figure 1.1 World production

1.2.2 Cottonseeds and Cottonseed Oil 6 1.2.3 Groundnuts and Groundnut Oil 6 1.2.4 Linseed 7 1.2.5 Maize 8 1.2.6 Olive Oil 9 1.2.7 Palm and Palm Kernel Oil 10 1.2.8 Rapeseed and Canola Oil 12 1.2.9 Sesame Seeds and Sesame Oil 12 1.2.10 Soybean 14 1.2.11 Sunflower 14 1.3 Novel Sources for Oil Production 17 1.4 Summary 18