Review Of Maritime Transport 2020 - UNCTAD
Growth in international maritime trade stalled in 2019, reaching itslowest level since the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. Lingeringtrade tensions and high policy uncertainty undermined growth in globaleconomic output and merchandise trade and by extension, maritimetrade. Maritime trade volumes expanded by 0.5 per cent, down from2.8 per cent in 2018 and reached a total of 11.08 billion tons in 2019.Growth in world gross domestic product slowed to 2.5 per cent, downfrom 3.1 per cent in 2018 and 1.1 percentage point below the historicalaverage over the 2001–2008 period. In tandem, global merchandisetrade contracted by 0.5 per cent, as manufacturing activity came underpressure and the negative impact of trade tensions between the twolargest world economies took a toll on investment and trade.1Against the backdrop of a weaker 2019, the short-term prospectsof maritime transport and trade darkened in early 2020. While initialexpectations were that 2020 would bring moderate improvementsin the economy and trade, the unprecedented global health andeconomic crisis triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic severely affectedthe outlook. The fallout on maritime transport and trade was dramatic,with all economic indicators pointing downward. Taking into accountthe prevailing and persistent uncertainty, UNCTAD estimates that thevolume of international maritime trade will fall by 4.1 per cent in 2020.Predicting the timing and scale of the recovery is also challenging, asmany factors can significantly influence the outlook. Bearing this inmind, UNCTAD projections indicate that maritime trade will recoverin 2021 and expand by 4.8 per cent.As the debate on the recovery continues to evolve, it is becomingclear that disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic will havea lasting impact on shipping and trade. These disruptions maytrigger deep shifts in the overall operating landscape, together with aheightened sustainability and resilience-building imperative. Potentialshifts range from changes in globalization patterns to alterations insupply-chain design, just-in-time production models, technologyuptake and consumer spending habits. Depending on how thesepatterns unfold and interact, the implications for maritime transportcan be transformational. Further, risk assessment and management,as well as resilience-building to future-proof supply chains andmaritime transport, are likely to feature more prominently on policyand business agendas. While maritime transport could emerge as acatalyst supporting some of these trends, it will also need to braceitself for change and adapt and ensure that it is also well prepared toenter the post-COVID-19 pandemic world.The Review of Maritime Transport 2020 is structured around fivesubstantive chapters. Chapter 1 considers the demand for maritimetransport services. Chapter 2 considers the factors that shape maritimetransport infrastructure and services supply, including ship-carryingcapacity, ports and related maritime businesses. Chapter 3 assessesthe sector’s performance using a set of indicators on port calls,port-waiting times, connectivity and the environmental sustainabilityof ships. Chapter 4 provides an overview of selected contributionsreceived from various stakeholders, including government andindustry, sharing experiences and lessons learned in connectionwith the pandemic. Chapter 5, the final chapter, presents key legaland regulatory developments, as well as trends in technology andinnovation affecting maritime transport and trade.The present chapter on international maritime trade and port trafficreviews major developments in the world economy, merchandisetrade, industrial activity and manufacturing supply chains that underpindemand for maritime transport infrastructure and services. Section Adiscusses volumes of international maritime trade and port traffic andoutlines key trends affecting maritime trade in 2019. Section B focuseson the unprecedented health and economic global crisis triggered bythe pandemic and considers its immediate impacts and its fallout onthe varied shipping segments and ports, as well as its implicationsfor the outlook of maritime transport and trade. Section C concludeswith some priority action areas with a view to ensuring the longer-termsustainability and resilience of maritime transport networks and supplychains.INTERNATIONALMARITIME TRADEAND PORT TRAFFIC
REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2020A. VOLUME OF INTERNATIONALMARITIME TRADE AND PORTTRAFFIC1.Maritime trade lost momentumin 2019 and came under pressurein 2020Owing to the slowdown in the world economy and trade,growth in international maritime trade stalled in 2019and reached its lowest level since the financial crisisof 2008–2009. After rising moderately (2.8 per cent) in2018, volumes expanded at a marginal 0.5 per cent in2019. A number of factors weighed on the performanceof maritime trade. These included trade policy tensions;adverse economic conditions and social unrest in somecountries; sanctions; supply-side disruptions, such asthe Vale dam collapse in Brazil and Cyclone Veronicain Australia; and low oil demand growth. UNCTADestimates the total volume of maritime trade in 2019 at11.08 billion tons (tables 1.1 and 1.2).As shown in figure 1.1, growth in maritime tradedecelerated in line with the slowdown in world GDPgrowth. Data also point to a negative outlook for 2020,Figure 1.1with world GDP and maritime trade projected to contractby 4.1 per cent. The onset of the pandemic in early 2020and its fallout on world economies, travel, transport andconsumption patterns, as well as manufacturing activityand supply chains, are causing a global recession in2020. See section C for a more detailed discussion onthe pandemic and its implications for maritime transportand trade.2.Negative trends in the worldeconomy and trade put a dentin international maritime tradeShipping is a derived demand largely determinedby developments in the world economy and trade.Therefore, negative economic and trade trends affectedmaritime trade growth in 2019. Global economic growthdecelerated in 2019 against a backdrop of lingeringtrade tensions and high policy uncertainty. Growthin world GDP slowed down to 2.5 per cent, below3.1 per cent in 2018 and 1.1 percentage point below thehistorical average in 2001–2008 (table 1.3). Developedand developing economies alike were affected,reflecting the continued trade tensions between Chinaand the United States and the overall weakening ofDevelopment of international maritime trade and global output, 2006–2020(Annual percentage change)Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on the Review of Maritime Transport, various issues, data from UNCTADstat and table 1.12 of thisreport.3
41. INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE AND PORT TRAFFICTable 1.1Development of internationalmaritime trade, selected years(Million tons loaded)Other drycargocYearTankertraderaMainbulkb19701 44044819801 8716081 2253 70419901 7559881 2654 00820002 1631 1862 6355 98420052 4221 5793 1087 10920062 6981 6763 3287 70220072 7471 8113 4788 03620082 7421 9113 5788 23120092 6411 9983 2187 85720102 7522 2323 4238 40820112 7852 3643 6268 77520122 8402 5643 7919 19520132 8282 7343 9519 51320142 8252 9644 0549 84220152 9322 9304 16110 02320163 0583 0094 22810 29520173 1463 1514 41910 71620183 2013 2154 60311 01920193 1693 2254 68211 076717Total(all cargo)2 605Sources: UNCTAD calculations, based on data supplied byreporting countries and as published on government and portindustry websites, and by specialist sources. Dry cargo data for2006 onwards were revised and updated to reflect improvedreporting, including more recent figures and a better breakdownby cargo type. Since 2006, the breakdown of dry cargo into mainbulk and dry cargo other than main bulk is based on various issuesof the Shipping Review and Outlook and Seaborne Trade Monitor,produced by Clarksons Research. Estimates of total maritimetrade figures for 2019 are based on preliminary data or on the lastyear for which data were available.a Tanker trade includes crude oil, refined petroleum products, gasand chemicals.bMain bulk includes iron ore, grain, coal, bauxite/alumina andphosphate. With regard to data as of 2006, main bulk includesiron ore, grain and coal only. Data relating to bauxite/alumina andphosphate are included under dry cargo other than main bulk.cIncludes minor bulk commodities, containerized trade andgeneral cargo.the world economy. In developed countries, GDPgrowth decelerated to 1.8 per cent, down from2.3 per cent in 2018, while developing regions expandedby 3.5 per cent, a relatively higher rate in comparison,but below the 4.3 per cent growth recorded in 2018.Growth in transition economies also stalled, expandingat 2.2. per cent in 2019 against 2.8 per cent in 2018.In the United States, the supportive effect of fiscalstimulus measures (New York Times, 2018) andstrong domestic demand that underpinned growthin 2018 diminished slightly in 2019. Growth in theEuropean Union fell to 1.5 per cent, the lowest ratesince 2013. Concerns in Europe and the uncertaintysurrounding a potential “no-deal” departure from theEuropean Union by the United Kingdom of Great Britainand Northern Ireland (Brexit) had a negative impact onthe economy. While the economy of China continuedto gradually mature and diversify, trade tensions seemto have contributed to weaker GDP expansion in 2019.Growth slowed to 6.1 per cent, the country’s weakestperformance since the early 1990s. Economic growthdecelerated across East Asia, South Asia and SouthEast Asia in varying degrees. In particular, the economyof India slowed down to 4.2 per cent GDP growth in2019, down from 6.8 per cent in 2018.In the developing Americas, economic growthwas hindered by adverse domestic and globalconditions. In 2019, GDP growth in the region contractedby 0.3 per cent. Subdued growth (0.9 per cent) inWestern Asia reflected weaker oil prices and geopoliticaltensions in the region, including those arising fromthe sanctions placed on the Islamic Republic of Iran.Growth in Africa remained relatively steady, increasingby 3.1 per cent.Global merchandise trade contracted in 2019 asmanufacturing activity slowed over the course of theyear. Rising tariffs have heightened policy uncertainty,undermined investment and weighed on global trade. In2019, world merchandise trade volumes declined andfell by 0.5 per cent, its lowest level since the financialcrisis a decade earlier (table 1.4). The negative trendswere mainly driven by a contraction in imports fromdeveloping countries, including China, other emergingAsian economies and developing America (UnitedNations, 2020a).Global trade tensions increased in 2019 and extendedbeyond China, the United States and Brexit. Forexample, complaints were made by several countriesagainst Indian tariffs, reciprocal allegations ofprotectionism were put forward by the European Unionand the United States, and a trade dispute occurredbetween Japan and the Republic of Korea. For example,in June 2020, the United States announced that it wasconsidering imposing more tariffs on European goodsin view of the contention over subsidies to Airbusand Boeing. The new list of goods that may faceduties of up to 100 per cent, potentially doubling theprice of certain goods, caused European stocks tofall, particularly those of beverage companies, luxurygoods manufacturers and truck makers (Whitten andBen-Moussa, 2020). Such developments, together withrising nationalist sentiment (MDS Transmodal, 2020a)and inward-looking policies, added to the uncertainty,caused business confidence to deteriorate, affectedinvestment growth in many countries and underminedglobal trade. This environment also amplified thechallenges in the electronics and automotive sectors,both of which have large international production valuechains. These two sectors were hit particularly hard.However, some countries gained export market shares
5REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2020Table 1.2International maritime trade in 2018–2019(Type of cargo, country group and region)Goods loadedDesignationYearTotalCrude oilGoods unloadedOthertankertradeaDry cargoTotalCrude oilOthertankertradeaDry cargoMillions of tons201811 019.01 881.01 319.77 818.311 016.82 048.81 338.67 629.4201911 075.91 860.21 308.47 907.311 083.02 033.41329.37 720.3Developedeconomies20183 862.8206.2507.53 149.13 844931.9494.82 417.820193 935.2242.9506.93 185.43 780913.6472.62 evelopingeconomies20186 443.41 471.1774.64 197.67 072.91 116.6839.05 117.320196 424.81 423.3760.34 241.27 200.71 118.9851.35 762.1293.569.9398.7504.539.299.3365.920181 385.4200.688.71 096.1638.147.1149.3441.820191 386.3204.282.31 099.8621.747.8138.8435.120184 280.4971.3607.82 701.35 918.91 029.7584.74 304.520194 261.8923.9600.52 737.56 059.11 031.1607.74 .115.40.75.59.1WorldAfricaAmericaAsiaOceaniaGoods loadedDesignationYearTotalCrude oilGoods unloadedOthertankertradeaDry cargoTotalCrude oilOthertankertradeaDry cargoPercentage AmericaAsiaOceaniaSource: UNCTAD calculations, based on data supplied by reporting countries and as published on government and port industry websites,and by specialist sources. Dry cargo data for 2006 onwards were revised and updated to reflect improved reporting, including more recentfigures and a better breakdown by cargo type. Estimates of total maritime trade figures for 2019 are based on preliminary data or on thelast year for which data were available.Note: For longer time series and data prior to 2019, see UNCTADstat Data Centre eView.aspx?ReportId 32363).a Includes refined petroleum products, gas and chemicals.
61. INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE AND PORT TRAFFICTable 1.3World economic growth,2018–2021(Annual percentage change)Table 2.5-4.34.1Developed countries2.32.31.8-5.83.1Region or countryGroup/countryVolumes of exported andimported goods, selected groupof countries, 2018–2020(Annual percentage change)Volume of exports(percentagechange)2018of which:20192020aVolume of pean Union 0.6-4.51.92.60.0-12.42.50.2-10.9United States2.62.92.3-5.42.8Developedcountriesof which:6.64.33.5-2.15.7Euro -4.9Developing countriesof which:Africa5.83.13.1-3.03.5East Asia9.25.95.41.07.4China10.96.66.11.38.1South Asia6.75.12.8-4.83.9United StatesOther developedcountriesDevelopedcountriesof which:of which:of which:India7.66.84.2-5.93.9South-East Asia5.75.14.4-2.24.3Western 6.82.31.3-4.23.4Latin Americanand the Caribbeanof which:Transition economiesof which:Russian 0.9Africa and theMiddle EastAsia (not 9-2.3-7.1Latin 9-1.3-4.12.23.1-5.9Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on CPB World TradeMonitor, August 2020. Data source and methodology are alignedwith UNCTAD, 2020a, Trade and Development Report 2020:From Global Pandemic to Prosperity for All – Avoiding AnotherLost Decade.Note: Country coverage in the aggregated country groupings isnot comprehensive.Percentage change between the average for the period Januaryto June 2020 and January to June 2019.aSource: UNCTAD calculations, based on UNCTAD, 2020a,Trade and Development Report 2020: From Global Pandemic toProsperity for All – Avoiding Another Lost Decade, chapter 1.aForecast.as companies looked for new suppliers from countriesthat were not directly affected by the rising tariffs.In December 2019, China and the United Statesagreed on the first phase of a trade agreement to helpde-escalate the tensions between the two economies.On 15 January 2020, both countries signed theagreement on the understanding that China wouldincrease its merchandise imports from the United Statesby 200 billion (United Nations, 2020a). In return, theUnited States would cut by half its 15 per cent tariffs on 120 billion of imports from China. In Europe, reduceduncertainty over Brexit was a welcome development,although the European Union and the United Kingdomstill needed to define a new trading relationship beforeJanuary 2021 (United Nations, 2020a). In June 2020,the United Kingdom outlined new customs and borderarrangements for 2021 and indicated its commitmentto introducing a three-phase plan of import changes,building new border facilities for carrying out requiredchecks and providing targeted support to ports to buildnew infrastructure (Lloyd’s Loading List, 2020a). Further,the European Union is expected to impose full customscontrols and checks on goods from the United Kingdomstarting 1 January 2021 (United Nations, 2020a).3.Regional and country groupingcontribution to maritime tradeIn 2019, developing economies continued to accountfor the lion’s share of goods being loaded (58 per cent)and unloaded (65 per cent) in seaports worldwide(figure 1.2). Together, developed economies andeconomies in transition generated 42 per cent ofglobal merchandise exports by sea (goods loaded)and imported 35 per cent (goods unloaded) of suchglobal trade. While the role of developing regions as asource and destination for maritime trade is significant,developing economies are not a homogenous group.The grouping includes countries and economies in
REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2020Figure 1.2Participation of developing economies in international maritime trade, selected years(Percentage share in total tonnage)Source: UNCTAD calculations, based on the Review of Maritime Transport, various issues and table 1.2 of this report.varying stages of development and degrees of integrationin the world’s manufacturing and trading networks.Much of the growth recorded over the past decadeis largely driven by fast growing emerging developingcountries, most notably China. These countries havealso been driving the structural shift in trade patternsobserved since 2013, whereby volumes unloaded indeveloping countries exceeded volumes loaded. Theshift is a reversal of a historical pattern where developingcountries acted as suppliers of large-volume low-valueraw materials imported by developed countries.and trading networks, promoting intraregional trade.Capitalizing on the fragmentation of globalized productionprocesses, Asia has become a maritime hub that bringstogether over 50 per cent of global maritime trade volumes.Figure 1.3International maritime trade,by region, 2019(Percentage share in total tonnage)There is a predominance of Asian and intra-Asian tradein globalized production processes and value chaingrowth. A closer look at this trend indicates that theglobalization of manufacturing processes has never beentruly global. There is scope for other developing regionswithin and outside Asia to diversify their economies,expand their maritime transport capacity and participatemore effectively in regional and international productionprocesses. The marginal contribution of these economiesto global value chains is reflected in their relatively limitedcontribution to container trade flows and global containerport throughput. Maritime transport, combined withsupportive trade and industrial policies, can be a catalystfor growth and greater integration in the world economyfor a broader range of such developing countries.In 2019, 41 per cent of the total goods loaded (exported)were sourced from Asia and 62 per cent of total goodsunloaded (imported) were received in this same region(figure 1.3). The contribution of developing America andAfrica to maritime trade flows remained marginal. Incomparison, and as previously noted, Asia has benefitedfrom a greater integration into global manufacturingSource: UNCTAD calculations, based on data supplied byreporting countries and as published on government and portindustry websites, and by specialist sources.Note: Estimated figures are based on preliminary data or on thelast year for which data were available.7
81. INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE AND PORT TRAFFIC4.Maritime trade underperformedacross market segmentsDry cargo continued to account for over two thirds of totalmaritime trade volumes, while liquid bulk commodities,including crude oil, refined petroleum products, gasand chemicals, accounted for the remaining share. In2019, growth in all market segments decelerated. Tradein dry cargo expanded at 1.1 per cent over 2018, andtanker trade volumes contracted by 1 per cent. A lookat how the various market segments have evolvedsince 1990 shows that growth in maritime trade overthe past three decades has been sustained by bullishtrends in containerized trade volumes starting in the2000s, coinciding with the wave of hyperglobalization(figures 1.4 and 1.5). It was also supported by theswift growth of trade in dry bulk commodities thataccompanied the rapid industrial expansion of Chinathat accelerated with its accession to the World TradeOrganization (WTO) in 2001.Figure 1.4Development of internationalmaritime trade by cargo type,selected years(Billion tons loaded)When adjusted for distances travelled, internationalmaritime trade grew at a slightly faster rate of1 per cent in 2019, supported by growing long-hauloil exports from Brazil and the United States to Asia.Clarksons Research estimates seaborne trade inton-miles to have reached 59,503 billion ton-miles in2019 (figure 1.6).Figure 1.7 shows that trade in ton-miles by cargoexpanded in varying degrees. Trade in containerand dry bulk commodities has fuelled much of thegrowth over the past two decades. The number ofcargo ton-miles generated by dry cargo has beenrising steadily over the years. In 2002, China imported121.7 million tons of iron ore and coal, accounting for11.8 per cent of the global iron ore and coal trade by sea(Clarksons Research, 2006). In less than two decades,these volumes increased to 1.3 billion tons, bringingthe country’ market share to nearly 50 per cent of theworld total (Clarksons Research, 2020b). Gas tradein ton-miles expanded swiftly to 9.9 per cent in 2019.Other segments recorded relatively smaller growth;ton-miles generated by trade in chemicals expanded by3.2 per cent, followed by container trade (1.9 per cent)and other dry cargo (1.6 per cent). Growth in ton-milesproduced by trade in oil and major bulk commoditiescontracted in 2019, reflecting declines in iron ore tradefollowing the disruption to mining activities in Brazilcaused by the Vale dam collapse.5.Demand and supply-side pressuresweighed on key market segmentsTrade in oil weakened, while tradein gas remained robustSince the onset of the shale revolution in the UnitedStates, developments in the country’s energy sectorhave played a significant role in shaping global tankertrade. This was apparent throughout 2019, with aSource: UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport, various issues.For 2006–2019, the breakdown by cargo type is based onClarksons Research, 2020a, Shipping Review and Outlook, spring2020 and Seaborne Trade Monitor, various issues.Note: 1980–2005 figures for main bulk include iron ore, grain, coal,bauxite/alumina and phosphate. With regard to data starting in2006, main bulk figures include iron ore, grain and coal only. Datarelating to bauxite/alumina and phosphate are included under“other dry cargo”.aTanker trade includes crude oil, refined petroleum products, gasand chemicals.
REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2020Figure 1.5Development of international maritime trade by cargo type, selected years(Index: 1990 100)Source: UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport, various issues. For 2006–2019, the breakdown by cargo type is based on ClarksonsResearch, 2020a, Shipping Review and Outlook, spring 2020 and Seaborne Trade Monitor, various issues.Note: 1980–2005 figures for main bulk include iron ore, grain, coal, bauxite/alumina and phosphate. Since 2006, main bulk figures includeiron ore, grain and coal only. Data relating to bauxite/alumina and phosphate are included under “other dry cargo”. Tanker trade includescrude oil, refined petroleum products, gas and chemicals.decline in United States crude oil imports and a rise inits long-haul exports. Overall tanker trade contracted by1 per cent in 2019, owing to lower volumes of crude oiland refined petroleum products (table 1.5). An overviewof global players in the oil and gas sector is presentedin table 1.6.Crude oil trade decreased by 1.1. per cent in 2019.Downside factors include the cuts in supply by membersof the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countriesaimed at supporting oil prices, as well as disruptionsaffecting exports from the Islamic Republic of Iran andthe Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. The impact onexports from Western Asia resulting from the attackson Saudi oil infrastructure was limited. Pressure on thedemand side include lower global oil demand, a sharpreduction in United States imports and a decline inglobal refinery activity. However, expansion in exportsfrom Brazil and the United States have supportedlong-haul journeys from the Atlantic to Asia. Crude oilimports to China increased by 10.6 per cent in 2019,compared with the previous year, while imports to theUnited States declined (Clarksons Research, 2020c).In Asia, extended refinery maintenance and smallerrefining margins contributed to limiting import growth(Clarksons Research, 2020d).Other tanker trade experienced difficulty in 2019,contracting by nearly 1 per cent. Major setbacksincluded slower global economic growth and extendedrefinery maintenance periods, with many refinersadjusting production in preparation for the coming intoforce on 1 January 2020 of the IMO 2020 regulationon a sulphur cap for marine fuels. In addition, naphthafaced competition from liquefied petroleum gas asa petrochemical feedstock, arbitrage opportunitieswere limited (Clarksons Research, 2020e) and fuel oiltrade declined. The latter accounts for over 20 percent of trade in seaborne refined petroleum products(Clarksons Research, 2020d).Mexican imports, a key driver of global trade growthin recent years, dropped in 2019 as domestic supplyincreased. Growth in imports to Latin America and risingexports from China provided support to product tankerdemand.Trade in gas remained strong, with volumes expanding bynearly 11 per cent in 2019. Trade in liquefied natural gasincreased by 11.9 per cent, supported by project start-upsin Australia and the United States. In comparison, tradein liquefied petroleum gas grew by 6 per cent, drivenlargely by growing supply in Australia, Canada and theUnited States (Clarksons Research, 2020c). Despite the9
101. INTERNATIONAL MARITIME TRADE AND PORT TRAFFICFigure 1.6International maritime trade in cargo ton-miles, 2000–2020(Billion ton-miles)Source: Clarksons Research, 2020a, Shipping Review and Outlook, spring.Note: Seaborne trade data in ton-miles are estimated by Clarksons Research. Given methodological differences, containerized trade datain tons sourced from Clarksons Research are not comparable with data in TEUs sourced from MDS Transmodal.aEstimated.bForecast.cIncludes iron ore, grain and coal.Figure 1.7International maritime trade in cargo ton-miles, 1999–2020(Billion ton-miles; index: 1999 100)Source: Clarksons Research, 2020a, Shipping Review and Outlook, spring.Note: Seaborne trade data in ton-miles are estimated by Clarksons Research. Given methodological differences, containerized trade datain tons sourced from Clarksons Research are not comparable with data in TEUs sourced from MDS Transmodal.aIncludes iron ore, grain and coal.bEstimated.cForecast.
REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2020Table 1.5Tanker trade, 2018–2019(Million tons and annual percentagechange)Tanker tradea20182019Percentagechange2018–2019Crude oil1 8811 860-1.1Other tanker tradeaof which:1 3201 308-0.941646110.83 2013 169-1.0GasTotal tanker tradeSources: UNCTAD calculations, derived from table 1.2 of thisreport.Note: Gas figures are derived from Clarksons Research, 2020c,Seaborne Trade Monitor, Volume 7, No. 6, June.aIncludes refined petroleum products, gas and chemicals.Table 1.6Major producers and consumersof oil and natural gas, 2019(World market share in percentage)World oilproductionPercentageWorld oilconsumptionWestern Asia32Asia and the Pacific36PercentageNorth America23North America23Transition economies16Europe15Developing America9Western Asia9Africa9Developing America9Asia and the Pacific8Transitioneconomies4Europe3Africa4Oil refinerycapacitiestrade tensions, long-haul United States exports to Asiacontinued to expand steadily due to substitution trendsand limited growth in Western Asian exports stemmingfrom sanctions and supply cuts. With regard to imports,China and India remained key markets. Imports intoChina picked up speed in 2019 compared with 2018,supported by its petrochemical sector demand andthe coming online of new propane dehydrogenationcapacity. Reduced shipments from the United Stateswere offset by increased imports from Africa, Australiaand Western Asia. In India, import demand for liquefi
The Review of Maritime Transport 2020 is structured around five . Figure 1.1 Development of international maritime trade and global output, 2006-2020 (Annual percentage change) 4 1 Year Tanker tradera Main bulkb Other dry . European Union fell to 1.5 per cent, the lowest rate since 2013. Concerns in Europe and the uncertainty
maritime component of European transport activity in terms of its size and extent and its relation to other modes of transport. This version of the reference manual is an update of the previous Reference Manual on Maritime Transport Statistics (Version December 2014 (2.0)). The manual is divided into four main parts:
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Key-Words: - Automatic maritime surveillance, ship detection, maritime traffic, maritime security. 1 Introduction Maritime surveillance had a major evolution with the improvement of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images that can be acquired day and night, on all weather conditions, [1]. Until very recently, those
the current scenario among the AMSs and highlights the major issues that need an attention to improve the transport performance in AMSs. With the purpose of easy understating, comparisons and review of current status, the chapter is divided by sectors in 4 sections i.e. Land Transport, Air Transport, Maritime Transport and Transport Facilitation.
Transport Management System of Nepal Nepalese transport management is affected by existing topographical condition of the country. Due to this only means of transport used in the country are road transport and air transport. In this paper only road transport is discussed. During the Tenth Plan period, the vehicle transport management
REVIE OF MARITIME TRANSORT 2018 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Review of Maritime Transport 2018 was prepared by UNCTAD under the coordination of Jan Hoffmann, with administrative support and formatting by Wendy Juan, and the overall guidance of Shamika N. Sirimanne.
REVIE OF MARITIME TRANSORT 2019. iii. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The . Review of Maritime Transport 2019. was prepared by UNCTAD under the overall guidance of Shamika N. Sirimanne, Director of the Division on Techn
The American Osteopathic Board of Radiology will not require a written attestation as a requirement for examination or certification. No. 11 In the osteopathic profession, the American Osteopathic Board of Radiology reviews and approves the eligibility of candidates whose training has been reviewed and approved by the American Osteopathic College of Radiology (AOCR). In 1982, the AOCR training .
