Child Protection In Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd Ed.)
CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECTUSER MANUAL SERIESChild Protection in Families ExperiencingDomestic Violence (2nd ed.)2018
Child Protection in FamiliesExperiencing Domestic Violence(2nd ed.)Kristen Selleck, Jeannie Newman, and Debra Gilmore2018U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesAdministration for Children and FamiliesAdministration on Children, Youth and FamiliesChildren’s BureauOffice on Child Abuse and Neglect
Table of ContentsPREFACE . 6ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . 7Other Acknowledgments . 8Principal Reviewers . 8Reviewers . 8CHAPTER 1: PURPOSE AND OVERVIEW . 91.1 Background . 91.2 Terms and Definitions .111.3 Topics Addressed in This Manual . 12CHAPTER 2: THE BASICS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE .132.1 What Is Domestic Violence? . 132.2 Definitions of Domestic Violence . 142.3 Scope of the Problem . 182.4 Understanding the Tactics of Abuse . 192.5 Root Causes of Domestic Violence . 26CHAPTER 3: PERPETRATORS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE . 313.1 Who Are Perpetrators of Domestic Violence? . 313.2 Indicators of Dangerousness . 343.3 Impact of Assessing Danger on Child Welfare Intervention . 363.4 Perpetrators and Parenting . 373.5 What Happens After the Perpetrator Leaves the Home? . 40CHAPTER 4: WORKING WITH ADULT SURVIVORS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE . 434.1 Who Are the Adult Survivors of Domestic Violence? . 434.2 Survivors’ Experiences With Child Welfare . 504.3 Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship . 504.4 Impact of Domestic Violence on Adult Survivors . 53CHAPTER 5: THE OVERLAP BETWEEN CHILD MALTREATMENT AND DOMESTICVIOLENCE . 575.1. Co-Occurrence of Child Maltreatment and Domestic Violence . 575.2 Effects of Domestic Violence on Children . 585.3 Other Risk Factors and Their Effects . 605.4 Protective Factors . 61CHAPTER 6: CHILD PROTECTIVE SERVICES PROCESS: INTAKE, INITIALASSESSMENT/INVESTIGATION, AND SAFETY ASSESSMENT AND PLANNING . 646.1 Guiding Principles for Working With Families Experiencing Domestic Violence . 666.2. Differences Between CPS and Domestic Violence Services Agencies . 676.3 CPS Practice Guidelines for Initial Screening . 716.4 Assessing the Family . 746.5 Safety Assessment and Safety Planning . 81
6.6 Ongoing Assessments . 856.7 Next Steps . 87CHAPTER 7: DECISION-MAKING, DEVELOPMENT OF THE FAMILY PLAN, ANDCASE CLOSURE . 907.1. Making a Decision About Substantiation and Next Steps . 907.2 Family Group Decision-Making . 937.3 Developing the Family (or Case) Plan Basics . 947.4 Developing the Family Plan for Survivors, Children, and Perpetrators ExperiencingDomestic Violence . 967.5 Using a Trauma-Focused Approach . 987.6 Documenting Domestic Violence in Child Protection Case Records . 1027.6 Closing a Case . 104CHAPTER 8: ENHANCING CASEWORKER SAFETY AND WELLNESS IN CHILDPROTECTION CASES INVOLVING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE . 1068.1 Safety Considerations for Caseworkers When Domestic Violence Is Involved . 1068.2 Steps to Enhance Caseworker Safety . 1088.3 Role of Supervisors, Managers, and Administrators in Supporting Caseworkers’Safety and Wellness .1108.4 Role of Supervisor and Agency Support in Addressing the Effects of Trauma .112CHAPTER 9: BUILDING COLLABORATIVE RESPONSES FOR FAMILIESEXPERIENCING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE .1149.1. The Importance of and How to Partner With Other Service Providers .1149.2 Principles of Collaboration With Community Partners . 1209.3 Promising Initiatives, Models, and Programs . 1219.4 Conclusion .124REFERENCES .126APPENDIX A: GLOSSARY . 144APPENDIX B: RESOURCE LISTINGS OF SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS CONCERNEDWITH DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND CHILD MALTREATMENT .151APPENDIX C: STATE DIRECTORY OF WHERE TO REPORT SUSPECTED CHILDMALTREATMENT .154APPENDIX D: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ASSESSMENT: SURVIVOR .158APPENDIX E: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ASSESSMENT: CHILD .161APPENDIX F: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ASSESSMENT:ALLEGED PERPETRATOR .163REFERENCES FOR APPENDICES D-F .165APPENDIX G: SAFETY PLANS .166APPENDIX H: DEVELOPING A MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING .168
PrefaceEach day, the safety and well-being ofchildren across the United States areendangered by child abuse and neglect.Many of these children live in homes that areexperiencing domestic violence. The childwelfare field continues to work to find effectiveways to serve families where this overlapoccurs. Intervening effectively in the lives ofthese children and their families is not the soleresponsibility of a single agency or professionalgroup but a shared community concern.The Child Abuse and Neglect User ManualSeries has provided guidance on childprotection to hundreds of thousands ofmultidisciplinary professionals and concernedcommunity members since the late 1970s. Theseries provides a foundation for understandingchild maltreatment and the roles andresponsibilities of various practitioners inits prevention, identification, investigation,assessment, and treatment. Through theyears, the manuals have served as valuableresources for building knowledge, promotingeffective practices, and enhancing communitycollaboration. It is our hope that these manualscontinue that tradition.Since the last update of the User ManualSeries in the early 2000s, the changinglandscape reflects an increased recognitionof the complex issues facing parents and theirchildren, new legislation, practice innovations,and system reform efforts. Advances inresearch and evidence-based practice havehelped shape new directions for interventions.The Office on Child Abuse and Neglect withinthe Children’s Bureau of the Administrationfor Children and Families, U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, has developedthe fourth edition of two of the manuals in theUser Manual Series to reflect this increasedknowledge base and the evolving state ofpractice. Child Protective Services: A Guide forCaseworkers (Caseworker manual) providesa comprehensive view of the child welfareprocess. This manual, Child Protection inFamilies Experiencing Domestic Violence,serves as a companion piece to the Caseworkermanual. It helps support caseworkers byproviding background and principles thatcan be applied in working with familiesexperiencing domestic violence.This manual, along with Child ProtectiveServices: A Guide for Caseworkers andthe prior versions of the entire UserManual Series, is available at ld Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)6
AcknowledgmentsKristen Selleck, M.S.W., is a supervisor withthe Capacity Building Center for Statesand oversees capacity-building services topublic child welfare agencies in five federalregions. With more than 15 years’ experiencein the intersection of domestic violenceand child maltreatment, Ms. Selleck haspresented numerous times, both nationallyand internationally, on strategies for childwelfare to intervene successfully in domesticviolence cases. She was the first NationalTraining Director for the Safe and TogetherInstitute, providing training and coaching tomultiple child welfare agencies throughoutthe United States and in England, Ireland,and Australia to improve practice and policy.Prior to her national work, Ms. Selleck was anadvocate and domestic violence consultantto the Connecticut Department of Childrenand Families. She sits on the National AdvisoryCommittee of the Quality Improvement Centerfor Domestic Violence in Child Welfare andhas been an Adjunct Professor of Social Workspecializing in social work policy.7Jeannie Newman, M.I.B.S., M.S.W., is aconsultant with over 25 years of experiencein the child welfare field. From working withchild abuse prevention and child protectiveservices, Ms. Newman went on to helpformulate policies, manage programs, facilitateconferences, give presentations, and writeand edit numerous reports and materialsaddressing child maltreatment and overlappingissues, including domestic violence. Sheremains active in the fields of child welfare andpediatric hospice. Ms. Newman also editedand coauthored many of the manuals in the lastedition of the Child Abuse and Neglect UserManual Series.Debra A. Gilmore, M.P.A., J.D., is a researchstrategist with the Capacity Building Centerfor States. Ms. Gilmore has more than 25years of experience in the child welfare fieldas a youth counselor, attorney, policy analyst,trainer, program manager, district manager,and capacity-building team member. She haspublished and presented to national audienceson child and family safety and child welfare bestpractices, and she co-created a research-basedpractice model designed for families frequentlyreferred to child welfare. Ms. Gilmore is a pastrecipient of a U.S Department of Health andHuman Services Adoption Excellence Award.She is the humble and happy parent of twoadopted children, ages 6 and 27.Child Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)
Acknowledgment of Prior EditionsThis manual is an update of the first version ofthis manual written by H. Lien Bragg in 2003.Rita L. Katzman, M.S.W.ConsultantICF InternationalMatthew Shuman, M.S.W.Senior Writer/EditorChild Welfare Information GatewayPrincipal ReviewersThese individuals provided extensive reviewand feedback.Kathy Simms, M.S.W.Program Area Advisor,Protective Services & In-Home ServicesCapacity Building Center for StatesQuincy Wilkins, M.S., L.M.F.T., L.P.C.C.Program Area Manager, Child ProtectionServicesCapacity Building Center for StatesReviewersThe following individuals also reviewed draftsand provided valuable feedback.Gloria Carroll, M.S.W., L.C.S.W.Program Area Manager, In-Home/FamilyPreservation ServicesCapacity Building Center for StatesSuzan CohenStaff ParalegalChild Welfare Information GatewayTheresa CostelloExecutive DirectorAction for Child ProtectionLonna Davis, M.S.W.Director of Children and Youth ProgramFutures Without ViolenceEileen WestSenior Program SpecialistAdministration for Children and Families,Children’s BureauOther AcknowledgmentsThis user manual was developed under thedirection and guidance of Jean Blankenship,Child Welfare Program Specialist; Julie Fliss,Child Welfare Program Specialist; and ElaineVoces Stedt, Director, Office on Child Abuseand Neglect.This product was created by the CapacityBuilding Center for States under ContractNo. HHSP233201400033C, funded by theChildren’s Bureau, Administration for Childrenand Families, U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services.Suggested Citation: Capacity BuildingCenter for States. (2018). Child protection infamilies experiencing domestic violence (2nded.). Washington, DC: Children’s Bureau,Administration for Children and Families, U.S.Department of Health and Human Services.For more information: Please visit the ChildWelfare Capacity Building Collaborativewebsite https://capacity.childwelfare.gov/states.Debra Gilmore, M.P.A., J.D.Research StrategistCapacity Building Center for States8Child Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)
Chapter 1:Purpose and OverviewWith the recognized co-occurrencebetween child maltreatment anddomestic violence, the second edition of ChildProtection in Families Experiencing DomesticViolence seeks to inform child welfare agenciesof updated demographics and practicesto identify and respond to the presence ofdomestic violence and to reduce the risk posedto children and domestic violence survivors.This manual aims to guide casework practiceby helping to ensure domestic violence survivorsafety, perpetrator accountability, and agencyresponse. Working more closely with thoseproviding services related to domestic violencehelps create a more comprehensive approachand improve child and family assistance. Thischapter: Provides the context for this manualDefines basic terms, used in general andthroughout the manual, for describing childabuse and neglect and domestic violenceDiscusses briefly the overlap of childmaltreatment and domestic violence,described in greater detail in Chapter 5,“The Overlap Between Child Maltreatmentand Domestic Violence”Lays out the sequencing of the chapters,each of which builds upon the previousones, for ease of reference1.1 BackgroundChild abuse and neglect is a communityconcern. Each community has a legal and moralobligation to promote the safety, permanency,and well-being of children, which includesresponding effectively to child maltreatment. Atthe federal level, the Child and Family ServicesReviews (CFSRs) monitor states to measure theireffectiveness at achieving these goals. At thestate and local levels, professionals assumethe roles and responsibilities (ranging fromprevention, identification, and reporting ofchild maltreatment to assessment, intervention,and treatment). Child protective services (CPS)agencies, along with law enforcement, playa central role in receiving and investigatingreports of child maltreatment.Child Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)9
CFSRs and Domestic ViolenceCFSRs enable the Children’s Bureau, apart of the U.S. Department of Healthand Human Services, Administrationfor Children and Families, to (1) ensureconformity with federal child welfarerequirements, (2) determine what isactually happening to children andfamilies engaged in child welfare services,and (3) assist states in enhancing theircapacity to help children and familiesachieve positive outcomes. The Children’sBureau completed the first round ofCFSRs in 2004 (after the publication of thefirst edition of this manual) and currentlyis conducting the third round. Thereviews are structured to help public childwelfare systems identify strengths andareas needing improvement within theiragencies and programs by examininghow well they achieve safety, permanency,and well-being in difficult situations ofchild maltreatment (U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, Children’sBureau, n.d.). CFSRs also help statesdevelop effective Program ImprovementPlans to improve child and familyoutcomes, including in domestic violencecases, and to enhance collaborationwith service providers experiencedin domestic violence (Taggart, 2009).For more information on CFSRs, amily-services-reviews.10For federal fiscal year 2015, the Children’s Bureaufound that the United States had approximately683,000 reported victims of child abuse andneglect, or 9.2 victims per 1,000 children in thepopulation (U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services, Children’s Bureau, 2017). Toprotect children from harm, CPS agencies relyon community members to identify and reportsuspected cases of child maltreatment, includingphysical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, andpsychological maltreatment. Many communityprofessionals (including health-care providers,mental health professionals, educators, andlegal and court system personnel) are involvedin responding to cases of child maltreatmentand domestic violence and in providing neededservices.Various professionals are mandated to reportsuspected child maltreatment to CPS or lawenforcement, such as health care workers andschool personnel. In some states, those whoprovide services related to domestic violence alsoare mandated reporters. In addition, communitybased agency staff, clergy, extended familymembers, and concerned citizens play importantroles in supporting and keeping families safe. Tofind individual state statutes regulating mandatoryreporting of child maltreatment, visit: s-policies/state/.Domestic violence is a devastating socialproblem, which affects every segment of thepopulation—all genders, ethnicities, and agesacross the socioeconomic spectrum. While systemresponses are primarily targeted towards adultsurvivors of abuse, increasingly attention alsofocuses on the children who witness domesticviolence. Estimates of the number of children whohave been exposed to domestic violence eachyear vary. Research suggests that nearly 30 millionchildren in the United States will be exposedto some type of family violence before the ageof 17, and there is a 30 to 60 percent overlap ofchild maltreatment and domestic violence (ChildWelfare Information Gateway, 2014; Hamby,Finkelhor, Turner, & Ormrod, 2011; Taggart, 2011).Child Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)
1.2 Terms and DefinitionsTerminology varies throughout the field andfrom system to system. Appendix A providesa glossary of terms used throughout this andother manuals. The term “domestic violence”is a pattern of coercively controlling behaviorsperpetrated by one intimate partner againstanother (Schechter & Edleson, 1999; ChildWelfare Information Gateway, n.d.-a). Whilesystems may choose to use a term that bestfits their needs, this manual will use “domesticviolence.” Chapter 2 details the dynamics,tactics, and examples of domestic violence.Other terms used in the field include: Adult domestic violenceIntimate partner violencePartner violenceFamily violenceViolence against womenDomestic assaultDomestic abuseDomestic terrorismSimilarly, this manual uses the term“perpetrator” to identify the person whocommits a pattern of domestic violence andcoercive control1 (University of Michigan,2009; Washington State Department of Socialand Health Services, 2010). Other similarlyacceptable terms, based on the need of theagency, include: BattererAbuserPerson using violence1Evan Stark developed the term “coercive control”(described in more detail in the next chapter) tohelp the public understand that domestic violenceinvolves more than physical abuse. It is a patternof behavior that seeks to take away the survivor’sliberty or freedom and to strip away the survivor’ssense of self (Children Experiencing Domestic AbuseRecovery Network, 2017).This manual uses two terms to refer to theperpetrator’s target of domestic violence:“survivor” and “nonoffending parent.”“Survivor” is used for general discussion andis defined as the perpetrator’s target (adultor child) of domestic violence, includingemotional, physical, verbal, sexual, andcoercive control, and children who also witnessdomestic violence (University of Michigan,2009; Washington State Department of Socialand Health Services, 2010). In almost allinstances in the manual, when used alone, theterm refers to the adult survivor. The manualuses “nonoffending parent” to describe asurvivor who also is parenting. Many advocateshave adopted “survivor” because the termencompasses the active role survivors takein being protective despite the abuse theyexperience. “Nonoffending parent” serves asa guide for caseworkers in differentiating theroles of the parents, i.e., offending parents areperpetrators who may harm their partners andchildren in the home. However, it is importantto remember that a nonoffending parentexperiencing domestic violence may also bean offending parent when child maltreatmentis alleged. Other terms, such as “victim” or“battered partner,” are commonly used. Inthis manual, however, “victim” will refer only tothose who have died due to domestic violencehomicide.In the manual, “parent” refers to birth parentsas well as other parental-role caregivers.Examples include guardians, emotional orpsychological parents (e.g., fictive kin whooften assume a parental role without any legalor biological relationship or responsibility tothe children), foster and adoptive parents, andstepparents.Child Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)11
Additionally, this manual refers to domesticviolence “advocates” and “specialists.” Whileeach jurisdiction may use these or otherterms (e.g., liaison), for the purposes of thismanual, an “advocate” is a person who worksfor a domestic violence service provider andadvocates for the survivors. A “specialist” isa person who works within the child welfare(or agency other than the domestic violenceservice provider) and, as the name implies,specializes in addressing domestic violenceissues for that particular agency. Certainly, anadvocate can be placed as a specialist in theseagencies, but, for simplification, specialistmeans employed by or placed at the childwelfare agency.1.3 Topics Addressed in This ManualIn addition to helping the reader understandthe background and key issues inherent ina discussion of the co-occurrence of childmaltreatment and domestic violence, thismanual also addresses the following practiceissues: The reader should note three additional items:1. While this manual, to be useful, deals ingeneralizations about domestic violenceand child maltreatment, it recognizes thatevery survivor and perpetrator has hisor her own unique experience, which isinfluenced by cultural background; gender,sexual identity, and sexual orientation;socioeconomic status; and other factors.2. The authors and reviewers made everyeffort to use the most current researchand materials. However, in some cases,the material referenced is older becausethe field recognizes it as the gold standardof certain definitions, terminology, orconcepts.3. Callout boxes and figures are usedthroughout this manual to inform and tobreak up the text. In some cases, theyprovide examples, resources, or additionalinformation. In others, they reiterate keypoints made earlier in the text that arepertinent again to the current section.While the formatting of each may varydepending on the content, the intent is toprovide easily accessible information to thereader.12 Basics of domestic violencePerpetrators of domestic violenceAdult survivors and child witnessesOverlap between child abuse and neglectand domestic violence and its impact onchildrenPractice guidelines for caseworkersassessing families experiencing domesticviolenceDecision-making, safety planning, and caseplanning when domestic violence is presentComplexity of children’s issues: A traumafocused approachSafety and wellness for CPS workers incases involving domestic violenceBuilding collaborative responses for familiesexperiencing domestic violenceEach chapter concludes with highlights of itskey points for a quick summary.Please note that the mention or discussionof any program, model, instrument, survey,or website in this manual does not connotean endorsement by the Children’s Bureau.Child Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)
For federal fiscal year 2015, the Children’sBureau found that the United States hadapproximately 683,000 reported victims of childabuse and neglect, or 9.2 victims per 1,000children in the population (U.S. Departmentof Health and Human Services, Children’sBureau, 2017). To protect children from harm,CPS agencies rely on community members toidentify and report suspected cases ofChapter 2:The Basics of Domestic ViolenceTo establish a foundation for understandingchild protection in families experiencingdomestic violence, it is important to understand its core components. This chapter: Provides an overview of the dynamics ofdomestic violenceDefines domestic violence and providesexamplesExplains the scope of the problemDetails tactics used in perpetratingdomestic violenceExamines the root causes of domesticviolenceExplores and helps dispel common mythsand misperceptionsThis chapter concentrates on a basicunderstanding of domestic violence.Subsequent chapters will build upon this bylooking at (1) the perpetrators, survivors, andchildren in more depth and (2) how caseworkersassess and intervene in cases involvingdomestic violence.2.1 What Is Domestic Violence?Historically, domestic violence has beenframed and understood exclusively as awomen’s issue. Domestic violence, however,can happen to anyone regardless of race, age,sexual orientation, religion, or gender. It affectspeople of all socioeconomic backgroundsand education levels. According to the U.S.Department of Justice’s (DOJ) Office onViolence Against Women (OVW) (2017),domestic violence occurs in both oppositeand same-sex relationships and can happento intimate partners who are married, livingtogether, or dating. (Chapter 4 describes thedemographics of survivors of domestic violencein more detail. This section explores thedynamics of domestic violence and providescommon definitions.)2.1.1 Dynamics of Domestic ViolenceDomestic violence not only affects survivors, italso has a substantial effect on family members,friends, coworkers, other witnesses, and thecommunity at large. Children exposed todomestic violence are among those seriouslyaffected by this crime. OVW (2017) found thatfrequent exposure to violence (also known aswitnessing domestic violence) in the home notonly predisposes children to numerous socialand physical problems but also teaches andnormalizes violence, increasing their risk ofChild Protection in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence (2nd ed.)13
becoming the next generation of survivors andperpetrators. Research typically recognizes theeffects of domestic violence on survivors, butabusive behavior also affects perpetrators: theymay lose their children, damage relationships,and face legal consequences. Formal systems,such as child protective services (CPS) agencies,face enormous challenges responding todomestic violence in their communities.The most commonly considered type ofdomestic violence centers on a pattern ofcoercively controlling behaviors perpetratedby one intimate partner against another(Stark, 2002). These controlling behaviorsdo not always involve physical violence, butphysical violence can escalate in coercivelycontrolling situations. These behaviors alsoinclude situations in which the relationshipbetween perpetrators and survivors has ended,thereby still af
7.4 Developing the Family Plan for Survivors, Children, and Perpetrators Experiencing . Domestic Violence 96. 7.5 Using a Trauma-Focused Approach 98. 7.6 Documenting Domestic Violence in Child Protection Case Records 102. 7.6 Closing a Case 104. PROTECTION CASES INVOLVING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 106
Minimum standards for child protection in humanitarian action Standards to mainstream child protection in other humanitarian sectors 163 Standard 19 Economic recovery and child protection DGH Standard 20 Education and child protection DHE Standard 21 Health and child protection DIL Standard 22 Nutrition and child protection DIG Standard 23 Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)
Care needed: (check all that apply) Child #1 Child #2 Child #3 Child #4 Child #5 Preferred Location (Zip Code other than home) Full day Part day Evenings Overnight Weekends Special Needs: Child #1 Child #2 Child #3 Child #4 Child #5 Limited English Child Protective Services Severely Handicapped
Child protection Child protection (CP) means the protection of children from violence, abuse, neglect and exploitation. Child sexual abuse The use of a child for sexual gratification by an adult or significantly older child/adolescent or any act which exposes a child to, or involves a child in, sexual processes beyond his or her understanding
The Child Protection in Emergencies Handbook is a product of the Child Protection AoR, formerly known as the Child Protection Working Group (CPWG). While the Child Protection AoR team coordinated the writing and editing, inputs were provided by Child Protection AoR member agencies as well as field-based coordinators.
Child: The United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child defines a child as a human being younger than 18, unless majority under the law applicable to the child is attained earlier. Child abuse: Child abuse is any deliberate behavior or
UNICEF Australia’s Child Safeguarding Policy June 2018 Page 2 of 14 Note: Child Protection vs Child Safeguarding UA makes the following distinction between child protection and child safeguarding: Child Protection: programs, measures and structures to prevent and respond to abuse, exploitation, neglect and violence affecting children in all sectors, contexts and environment (essentially, the .
The Child Protection Act 1999 provides the legal framework for the provision of support to children and families who may be experiencing vulnerability. Amendments to the Act included in the Child Protection Reform Amendment Act 2017, which commenced fully on 29 October 2018, provided a
Academic writing is cautious, because many things are uncertain. When we put forward an argument, point of view or claim, we know that it can probably be contested and that not everybody would necessarily agree with it. We use words and phrases that express lack of certainty, such as: Appears to Tends to Seems to May indicate Might In some .
