STUDIA ORIENTALIA SLOVACA Ročník · Volume 12 16178 číslo · Number 1 21 9
STUDIA ORIENTALIA SLOVACA17816ročník · volume 12číslo · number 122013201892017
Čínsky znak na obálke znamenajúci ‘východ’, pochádzajúci od Liu Xie(1781–1840), bol vyrytý do nefritu podľa vzoru zo začiatku nášho letopočtu. · TheChinese character with the meaning ‘east’ employed on the cover is cut as a sealby Liu Xie, on the basis of models from the beginning of our era.
STUDIA ORIENTALIASLOVACAročník · volume 1217816číslo · number 122013920172018Univerzita Komenského v BratislaveKatedra východoázijských štúdií
Šéfredaktor · EditorJana BenickáZástupcovia šéfredaktora · Associate EditorsMartin Slobodník (†) · Ľuboš GajdošRedakčná rada · Editorial BoardWolfgang Behr Asien-Orient-Institut, Universität ZürichLuboš Bělka Ústav religionistiky, Masarykova univerzita, BrnoDušan Deák Katedra porovnávacej religionistiky, Univerzita Komenského v BratislaveBernard Faure Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Columbia University, New YorkMichael Friedrich Asien-Afrika-Institut, Universität HamburgMarián Gálik Ústav orientalistiky, Slovenská akadémia vied, BratislavaMartin Gimm Abteilung Sinologie und Manjuristik, Universität zu KölnImre Hamar Orientalisztikai Intézet, Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, BudapestMiloš Hubina College of Religious Studies, Mahidol University, BangkokLi Xuetao 李雪濤 Institute for Global History, Foreign Studies University, BeijingOlga Lomová Ústav Dálného východu, Univerzita Karlova v PrazeMiriam Löwensteinová Ústav Dálného východu, Univerzita Karlova v PrazeRotem Kowner Department of Asian Studies, University of HaifaLucie Olivová Seminář čínských studií, Centrum asijských studií, Masarykova univerzita, BrnoYuri Pines Department of Asian Studies, The Hebrew University of JerusalemIrina Popova Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. PetersburgCodruţa Sîntonean Departamentul de Studii Asiatice, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-NapocaHelmut Tauscher Institut für Südasien-, Tibet- und Buddhismuskunde, Universität WienDavid Uher Katedra asijských studií, Univerzita Palackého, OlomoucAlexander Vovin Centre de Recherches linguistiques sur l’ Asie Orientale, ParisSusanne Weigelin-Schwiedrzik Institut für Ostasienwissenschaften, Universität WienStudia Orientalia Slovaca (SOS) je recenzovaný časopis vychádzajúci dvakrát ročne. VydávaUniverzita Komenského v Bratislave, Filozofická fakulta, Katedra východoázijských štúdií,IČO 00397865, vyšlo v júni 2019. Studia Orientalia Slovaca (SOS) is a peer-reviewed journalpublished semi-annually by the Department of East Asian Studies, Faculty of Arts,Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia.Vedecké štúdie v Studia Orientalia Slovaca sú indexované v database SCOPUS. · Researcharticles in Studia Orientalia Slovaca are abstracted and indexed in SCOPUS. by Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave, Katedra východoázijských štúdií, Šafárikovonám. 6, SK -814 99 Bratislava, Slovakia, 2019.EV 4938/14ISSN 1336-3786
Studia Orientalia Slovaca18 · 1 (2019)Štúdie · ArticlesKana or Kanji? Preferences in Orthographic Representation of JapaneseAuxiliary Verbs . . 1Ivona Barešová and Martin SchirAdapting Japanese Chrematonyms into Chinese from the SociolinguisticPerspective: Strategies and Approaches . 29Martin LavičkaA Chinese Comic Book and the Anti-schistosomiasis Campaign duringthe Cultural Revolution. 51Fan Ka-waiSlovak–Taiwanese Relations under »One China« Policy. 75Eunika RejtováMa Yuan’s Metafictional Games and the Subversion of the LiteraryPolitical Discourse . 99František ReismüllerTōchatā: An Analysis of a Thai Life-Prolonging Ritual. 121Jakratep Rampungkit
Recenzie · ReviewsTereza Slaměníková, Čínské znakové písmo: synchronní model tradičníkategorizace [Chinese Writing System: A Synchronic Model of theTraditional Categorisation]. 151Václav ŠtefekO autoroch · List of Contributors with Contact Details. 155
Kana or Kanji? Preferences inOrthographic Representation ofJapanese Auxiliary Verbs*Ivona Barešová and Martin SchirAbstract This paper explores orthographic preferences for writing Japanese auxiliary verbs.After an initial examination of the orthographic tendencies for selected verbs using theBCCWJ corpus and several books on the Japanese language, a small experiment wasconducted investigating more closely the orthographic practices and motivationsunderlining the choice of script. The paper presents the findings of the analysis, offeringan insight into the various considerations concerning orthographic choices in general andfor writing the selected auxiliary verbs in particular.KeywordsJapanese auxiliary verbs · kana, kanji, script preferences, language guidelinesIntroductionOne of the most salient characteristics of the Japanese language is the complexityof its writing system,1 which combines logographic Chinese characters (kanji) andtwo phonographic syllabaries (hiragana and katakana), and also makes use of Arabicnumerals and the Latin alphabet. Official language guidelines prescribeconventions concerning script selection, to be observed in official writing, such aslaws and ordinances, official documents, newspapers and magazines, but even inthese formal settings some deviations from the norm occur. Individuals, however,are subject to a variety of influences affecting their script selection, and learners*The work is supported by Internal Grant Agency of Palacky University [IGA FF 2018 024].1See, e.g., Insup Taylor and Martin M. Taylor, Writing and Literacy in Chinese, Korean and Japanese(Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995); Janet S. Shibamoto–Smith, »Japanese Writing«, in The World’sWriting Systems, ed. by Peter T. Daniels (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 209–217.
2SOS 18 · 1 (2019)of Japanese seeking to emulate authentic modern language often point out variousdiscrepancies between the writing conventions they learn and the actual languagethey see.This study investigates orthographic variation in the writing of auxiliary verbs.In principle, auxiliary verbs should be written in hiragana rather than kanji. Acorpus analysis showed that while the practice of writing auxiliary verbs in hiraganaclearly prevails, kanji are used as well, with the overall frequency differingdepending on the verb and the type of text. Kanji are more often found in literaryworks and texts written by individuals, as opposed to formal writing bound byinstitutional conventions. This raises a number of questions: Why choose kanjiover kana? Are the individuals making a conscious choice, or do they intuitivelyfavor one or the other script for a particular case? Are there any consistenciesbased on the type of verb or context, either for that individual or for mostindividuals?The research for this paper involved a small experiment concerning writingpractices among a particular demographic of native speakers, Japanese universitystudents. Each of the 20 subjects typed dictated sentences, with a subsequentinterview ascertaining their motivation for script choice. This paper presents thefindings of the analysis, providing some insight into the various considerationsconcerning orthographic choices for auxiliary verbs.1Official Language Guidelines for Using the Various ScriptsAs was mentioned above, the Japanese language utilizes several distinct scripts. Asa general rule, content words of native or Sino-Japanese origins, including nounsand verbal and adjectival stems, are written in kanji. Hiragana is used for functionwords, such as particles and inflectional endings, as well as some content wordswhich would otherwise be written with difficult or uncommon kanji. Katakana istoday used primarily for non-Chinese loanwords, and also for onomatopoeic words,exclamations, specialized scientific terminology, and some other specific purposes,such as the Japanese equivalent of italicization, for emphasis, etc. The Roman
3Barešová and Schir · Kana or Kanji?alphabet is used especially for abbreviations and acronyms. Numbers are writteneither in kanji or Arabic numerals.2The following sentence from an Internet communication illustrates howthese scripts work together.YouTubeFukusūnoYouTubeakauntoopluralGEN3 YouTubeaccountACC one-CLS DAT make:DEShitotsunishitai.»I want to merge several YouTube accounts into one.«The word fukusū (»plural, multiple«) is a content word and as such is written inkanji. The particles no, o and ni are written in hiragana, as well as the verb shitai(this verb is commonly written in hiragana and so is the desiderative suffix—tai).Akaunto comes from the English word »account« and thus is written in katakana.The word hitotsu consists of the number one written with an Arabic numeral andthe numeral classifier tsu written in hiragana.The various conventions for the use of these scripts, including the list of kanjito be used in official public writing and consequently required for completingcompulsory education, have changed over time.4 After the Second World War the2Shoichi Iwasaki, Japanese. Revised Edition (Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2013), 20;Shibamoto–Smith, »Japanese Writing«, 209–212.3The abbreviations used in this paper are based on Iwasaki (Japanese, 2013): ABL ablative, ACC accusative, ADV adverbial form, ALL allative, ASP aspect, ATT attributive form, AUX auxiliary, CLS classifier, COM comitative, COND conditional form, COP copula, DAT dative, DES desiderative form, GEN genitive, H.HON humble honorific, HON honorific(respect), IMP imperative form, INF infinitive form (ren’yōkei), LEX lexical verb, LOC locative, NEG negative, NML nominalizer, NOM nominative, NPAST nonpast, PAST past, POL polite suffix, POT potential suffix, Q question marker, QT quotative particle,SE sentence extender, SFX suffix, TE conjunctive (-te) form, TOP topic, VOL volitionalsuffix.4For a detailed description see, e.g. Christopher Seeley, A History of Writing in Japan (Honolulu:University of Hawai’i Press, 1991); Tessa Carroll, Language Planning and Language Change in Japan(Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001); Nanette Gottlieb, Kanji Politics. Language Policy and JapaneseScript (New York: Routledge, 2016).
4SOS 18 · 1 (2019)government published a Cabinet regulation restricting to 1,850 the number ofkanji for legislation, administration, newspapers, magazines, and general sociallife.5 The actual number of kanji used, for example, in newspapers was, however,much higher, because many kanji for personal and place names were not includedamong the 1,850. This list of Tōyō kanji (Chinese characters for daily use) wasreplaced in 1981 with 1,945 Jōyō kanji (Chinese characters for common use), andwith the 2010 revision it was extended to the present 2,136. This list is currentlycomplemented by 863 Jinmeiyō kanji, a specific list of additional characters forpersonal and place names.The list of Jōyō kanji is accompanied by a Cabinet directive addressing the useof kanji and hiragana in official public documents (Kōyō bun ni okeru kanji shiyō nadoni tsuite [Cabinet directive on the use of kanji in government texts]) and in legaltexts (Hōrei ni okeru kanji shiyō nado ni tsuite [Cabinet directive on the use of kanjiin laws and ordinances]), specifying, among other things, which types of wordsshould be written in hiragana instead of kanji.The conventions for using kana can be found in the current 1986 revision ofthe 1946 Gendai kanazukai (Modern kana usage). The current use of okurigana6should follow the 1973 revised version of the 1958 Okurigana no tsukekata (Rules forusing okurigana), although some changes are included in the 2010 Cabinet directiveon the use of kanji in government texts.These guidelines are elaborated in more detail by numerous books andmanuals which illustrate and clarify the brief directives through various examples.Despite all this attention, these official guidelines are viewed more asrecommendations rather than actual rules, and the less official the text, the greaterthe accepted deviation from these conventions, as various other considerationscome into play.5Max Kuenburg, »Toyo Kanji. The Story of Modern Japanese Characters«, Monumenta Nipponica, 8,1/2 (1952), 230.6Okurigana is kana added on to a kanji to clarify the specific reading and meaning.
Barešová and Schir · Kana or Kanji?25Individual Writing HabitsA person’s writing habits are influenced by various factors: their education,conventions of their company or other social group, the various texts to whichthey have been exposed, their kanji competence, etc. A Japanese colleagueadmitted that his orthographic choices are very much influenced by his favoriteauthor. Orthographic choice also depends on the type of text, and whether it isbeing typed or hand-written. When writing by hand, people generally tend to usefewer kanji, using hiragana instead of more complicated kanji, but when typingthey may end up using kanji even in situations when they would otherwise usehiragana, because the hiragana can be easily converted to one of the suggested kanjiby just pressing the kana-kanji conversion key. According to Gottlieb, 7 wordprocessing has brought about the revival of very complex kanji, and an overuse ofkanji in general.Whether typing or writing by hand, some people simply enjoy loading theirtexts with kanji, while others stylistically prefer using more hiragana. Some havequite specific preferences. For example, Gottlieb8 mentions a university professorwhose personal preference is to write boku (»I«) in katakana, although it is usuallywritten in kanji or hiragana. A considerable diversity can be also found in the useof okurigana.Unlike official texts, which are supposed to observe the conventions set bythe government, an individual’s orthographic choices are more a matter ofpersonal style, for which the script variety provides a rich flexibility oforthographic choice. Nevertheless, it would be logical to assume that the variousformal published texts such as newspapers and textbooks should be the substantialinfluence upon the writing style of the general population.7Nanette Gottlieb, Word-processing Technology in Japan: Kanji and the Keyboard (Richmond: CurzonPress, 2000); Nanette Gottlieb, Language and Society in Japan (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2005).8Gottlieb, Word-processing Technology in Japan: Kanji and the Keyboard, 74.
6SOS 18 · 1 (2019)3Orthography of Selected Auxiliary Verbs in Various Types of TextsRecommendations concerning the choice of script for auxiliaries in official publictexts can be found in the 2010 Cabinet directive on the use of kanji in governmenttexts, 9 the same as in the 1981 directive. Auxiliaries are treated here in twosuccessive paragraphs. The first states that jodōshi should be written in hiragana.The term jodōshi is variously used to refer to either auxiliary suffixes or to auxiliaryverbs (derived from lexical verbs), or to both, but here and most commonly itrefers only to the former, as in the traditional Japanese school grammar, accordingto which auxiliary verbs are referred to as hojodōshi (»subsidiary, auxiliary verbs«).The directive does not explicitly mention hojodōshi, but the second paragraph listsa number of verbs that are hojodōshi, and they are also recommended to be writtenin hiragana. The table below shows the exact formulation, which can be translatedas: »Words and phrases like the following, when used in a similar manner as theexamples listed, are in principle to be written in hiragana«. This instruction israther vague, allowing space for individual interpretation. Hirose10 interprets thisto mean that hojodōshi should be in principle written in hiragana.9»Kōyō bun ni okeru kanji shiyō nado ni ntTexts], http://www.bunka.go.jp/kokugo unrei.pdf (last retrieval Nov 1, 2018).10Hirose Kikuo, Kōyō bun: Yōji yōgo no yōten[Main PointsConcerning the Use of Characters and Word Choice] (Nagoya: Shin Nihon Hōki Shuppan, 2011),1.
Barešová and Schir · Kana or Kanji?7Table 1The Passage Concerning Auxiliary Verbs in the Cabinet Directive »Kōyō bun ni okerukanji shiyō nado ni tsuite« (1981, 2010)[other than hojodōshi are omitted]This study investigated orthographic practices concerning such verbs in the verbconstruction V-te-AUX,11 initially focusing on the auxiliary use12 of the followinglexical verbs: iku (»go«), kuru (»come«), miru (»see, look, watch«), oku (»put,place«), ageru (»give«), sashiageru (humble counterpart of ageru), kureru (»give«),kudasaru (honorific counterpart of kureru), morau (»get, receive, be given«), anditadaku (humble counterpart of morau). When used as lexical verbs, these verbsare usually written in kanji, except for ageru, kureru, and morau, which are usuallywritten in hiragana. The kanji for morau is not even among Jōyō kanji.An initial working understanding of actual orthographic tendencies was madeusing the Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (BCCWJ, createdby the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics) and also byexamining several publications on Japanese language. While it was expected thatthe corpus would reveal various differences between types of text, the books on11And also the honorific construction o-V-i-AUX.12In an auxiliary verb construction, »the auxiliary serves to aid in the expression of the particularrealization of the event type encoded by the lexical verb as grounded in the larger context of thecommunicative discourse surrounding the event.« Gregory D. S. Anderson, Auxiliary VerbConstructions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 9.
8SOS 18 · 1 (2019)Japanese language were expected to closely adhere to the recommended hiraganaorthography.3.1 The BCCWJAs was already mentioned above, verbs when used as auxiliaries (hojodōshi) shouldgenerally be written in hiragana. Whether this was followed was verified byexamining the Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (from 1980to 2010). The following subcorpora of the BCCWJ were searched: newspapers,books on natural science, literary works and written communication from Yahoo!Blogs and Yahoo! Q&A (Chiebukuro).13 Newspapers and books on natural sciencewere expected to follow the official guidelines the closest, while in literary worksit was assumed that the author’s style might play some role, and Yahoocommunication was expected to be the least bound by official recommendations.The filter mechanics of the online corpus search application Chūnagon did notenable us to successfully select only these verbs in auxiliary function, so it was notpractical to filter out all lexical uses of the verbs. Consequently, the data indicatesslightly higher use of kanji than for auxiliaries alone. The results 14 show thathiragana was used in approximately 91 % of cases. In other words, it seems thatthe recommendations are observed in practice. This number is even higher inofficial texts—in newspapers it averages 95 % and the same percentage was foundfor books on natural science. In literary texts it is 87 % and in blogs only 85 %.For individual verbs the percentage range is even wider, 70–99 %. The highestrate (98–100 %) is observed with the benefactive verbs ageru, kureru, morau. Thiswas expected, as these verbs are usually written in hiragana even when used aslexical verbs. A slightly lower rate was observed for the auxiliaries miru and oku,which are commonly written in kanji when used as lexical verbs. At the other endof the spectrum the benefactive verbs kudasaru and itadaku showed the lowestrates; for kudasaru it was in literary works about 60 % and in blogs below 60 %, inthe construction o-V-i-kudasaru not even reaching 50 %.13Yahoo! Chiebukuro is a question-and-answer website where users submit questions and can alsoanswer questions asked by other users.14The verb sashiageru was not included as the number of occurrences was quite low.
9Barešová and Schir · Kana or Kanji?The data confirmed that the examined auxiliary verbs are usually written inhiragana as recommended by the official guidelines. However, for some of theverbs, the less official the text is, the more varied is the choice of script, meaninga higher tendency to use kanji.3.2 Publications on Japanese languageIt could be expected that publications on Japanese language aimed at foreignlearners, such as grammar dictionaries and grammar practice books, would observethe official guidelines and use hiragana for auxiliary verbs, but a considerablediversity was found.(Shokyū o oshieru hito no tame no) Nihongo bunpō handobukku15 was the only bookof those examined in which all auxiliaries were written in hiragana. The collectionof example sentences (Gakushūsha no hassō ni yoru) Nihongo hyōgen bunkei reibunshū16,17 contained auxiliary verbs written mostly in hiragana. An exception was the verbkudasaru (V-te-kudasaru, V-te-kudasai), which was for some reason consistentlywritten in kanji throughout the book. On the other hand, in (Kyōshi to gakushūshano tame no) Nihongo bunkei jiten18 the orthography of auxiliaries was not unified. Forexample, kudasai in notte-kudasai 19 appears in both hiragana and kanji, with nodiscernible difference in the contexts in which they are used. Similarly, in V-te15Iori Isaoet al., (Shokyū o oshieru hito no tame no) Nihongo bunpō handobukku ()[A Handbook of Japanese Grammar for TeachingBeginners] (Tokyo: 3A Corporation, 2000).16The examined books were all first published between 1988 and 2000 but they keep beingreprinted, thus influencing current readers. We are citing here the year of the printing we haveactually examined, in addition to the year of the first edition, as minor changes could have beenmade later within the same edition.17Sakamoto Tadashi, (Gakushūsha no hassō ni yoru) Nihongo hyōgen bunkei reibunshū[A Collection of Example Sentences of Japanese GrammarPatterns Suitable for Learners of Japanese] (Tokyo: Bonjinsha, 1999, first publ. 1996).18Sunakawa Yuriko, Gurūpu Jamashiigakushūsha no tame no) Nihongo bunkei jitenet al., (Kyōshi to[A Dictionaryof Japanese Grammar Patterns for Teachers and Learners] (Tokyo: Kurosio Publishers, 2002, firstpubl. 1998).19Ibid., 17.
10SOS 18 · 1 (2019)oite-kudasai20 kudasai is written once in hiragana and once in kanji. Auxiliary verbsiku and kuru are also written both in hiragana and kanji, but when they are used toexpress some change over time hiragana is chosen. In A Dictionary of Basic JapaneseGrammar 21 the auxiliary verbs iku and kuru are the only auxiliaries of thoseexamined that are written in kanji, consistently in all instances, regardless of theirmeaning or context, which is surprising considering that all other auxiliaries are inhiragana. In the introductory part of Jodōshi—Auxiliary verbs22 all the verbs arewritten in hiragana. Hiragana prevails in other parts as well, but while, for example,the form V-te-kudasaru is written in hiragana, the imperative form V-te-kudasai isin kanji.23 The verbs iku and kuru appear in both hiragana and kanji, again for nodiscernible reason.As these examples show, kanji are used for auxiliaries to a certain extent in allbut one of the mentioned publications. Diversity of script applied to the followingverbs: iku, kuru, kudasaru and its imperative form kudasai. In some of thepublications the use of hiragana vs. kanji seems to be consistent, but it is not clearwhat the underlining motivations are, and the practice can differ widely from bookto book.20Ibid., 247.21Seichi Makino and Michio Tsutsui, A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar (Tokyo: The JapanTimes, 2015, first publ. 1989).22Kitagawa Chisato and Atsur Iguchi, Japanese for Foreigners: Auxiliary verbs (Tokyo: AratakeShuppan, 1999, first publ. 1988).23E.g., Ibid., 61, 79.
11Barešová and Schir · Kana or Kanji?Table 2Script Choices for Auxiliaries in Selected Books on Japanese LanguageJodōshi unkeireibunshū1999)(1996, ngobunkeijiten(2000)(1998,A Dictionaryof BasicJapaneseGrammar2002)(1989, 2015)H/KH/KHHHHHHH/KH/KHKKHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH4The ExperimentWriting practices concerning auxiliary verbs were studied through a smallexperiment conducted with 20 Japanese university students. They were all medicalstudents, aged 19–30, i.e., well-educated young people who, however, were notspecializing in linguistics or even the humanities.Since most writing is done these days with a word processor with a kana-kanjiconversion key, which offers a selection of kanji, we decided to test under theseconditions. We realize that the test results could be quite different if we hadstudents write out the sentences on paper, and this could be the subject of somefuture comparative study.Each student was asked to type 32 dictated randomly ordered sentences,selected from the above publications, each of which contained one or more of the
12SOS 18 · 1 (2019)selected verbs. The dictation was followed by an interview ascertaining theirmotivation for script choice.In order to limit the time contribution of each student to one hour, and tomaintain their attention, the range of verbs to be closely examined was narrowedto the following: aspectual auxiliaries miru and oku, directional and aspectual ikuand kuru, and benefactive itadaku and kudasaru. Miru and oku were selected due tothe clear distinction between their meanings when used as lexical verbs and whenused as auxiliaries, and also as examples of auxiliary verbs that seem to beconsistently written in hiragana. Iku and kuru were chosen as opposite examples,whose orthography was quite varied. Additionally, two verbs of benefaction wereselected, itadaku and kudasaru, including its imperative form kudasai, as it waspresumed that politeness could well influence script selection.These verbs were used in the sentences usually as auxiliaries, but in someinstances also as lexical, to see whether the respondents had a tendency todifferentiate, or whether they used one type of script for the particular verbregardless of its meaning. Special attention was paid to reading lexical verbs withauxiliaries attached (V-te-AUX) as one unit, so that they would not be mistakenfor two predicates linked by the -te form.5Findings5.1 The aspectual auxiliaries miru and okuThe basic meaning of miru when used as a lexical verb is »see, look, watch«. As anauxiliary verb it means »make an attempt at doing something to see what it is likeor what will happen«.24 The table below presents the orthographic preferences forthe verb miru. The first sentence (A1) contains both lexical and auxiliary uses ofthe verb; the remaining sentences (A2–A4) contain miru used as an auxiliary.24Makino and Tsutsui, A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar, 246.
13Barešová and Schir · Kana or Kanji?Table 3Orthographic Preferences for the Verb MiruA1A2A3A4A1:MIRU mite-mitai to omotte-iru.mite-mitai to omotte-iru. tsukutte-mite. kiite-miyō to omotte-imasu. tazunete-itte-miyō to omoimasu.Panda wapandamadaTOP yetH/K0/2020/020/019/120/0LEXAUXAUXAUXAUXmitakoto ganai.Ichido mite-mitaisee:PASTNML NOM NEG:NPAST oncetosee:TE-ASP:DES QTomotte-iru.think:TE-ASP:NPAST»I have not seen a panda yet. I would like to see one someday.«A2:Totemokantan daveryeasykara,tsukutte-mite.COP:NPAST because make:TE-ASP:TE»It’s very easy so try to make/cook it by yourself.«A3:Donokuruma owhichcarkauka kimerumaeACC buy:NPAST Q decide:NPAST beforekuwashiihitonoknowledgeablepersonGEN opinionikenoni,kuruma niDAT carkiite-miyōACC :NPAST»Before I decide which car to buy, I think I will try to ask an opinion of someonewho has good knowledge about cars.«A4:AitenopartnerGEN addresshontō-nijūshowajibun noTOP selftonariGEN neighbortazunete-itte-miyōreal-COP:ADV visit:TE-go:TE-ASP:VOLnokenGEN prefecturenanode,COP becauseto omotte-imasu.QT think:TE-ASP:POL:NPAST»The person has an address in the neighboring prefecture, so I think I will really tryto visit him.«
14SOS 18 · 1 (2019)As was expected, when used as a lexical verb, miru was written in kanji, butwhen used as an auxiliary it was consistently written in hiragana, regardless of theverb to which it was attached. Auxiliary miru was strongly perceived as beingunrelated to the lexical verb miru. The only use of kanji for this auxiliary (in A3)was afterwards explained as a typographical error.Oku as a lexical verb means »put« or »place«. When used as an auxiliary verb itmeans »do something in advance« or »leave something as it is for futureconvenience.« 25 It indicates the »agent’s action in preparation for a futuresituation.«26Table 4Orthographic Preferences for the Verb OkuA5A6A7A5:OKU oku basho irete-okō. kaite-oita.H/K0/2020/020/0LEXAUXAUXSono kikaiokaukanegaaruga,thatmachineACC buy:NPAST money NOM exist:NPAST butganai.okubashoput:NPAST placeNOM exist:NEG:NPAST»I have the money to buy the machine, but there is no place to put it.«A6:Kono wain wathiswinetsumetaihōgaii.kara,nomutokiTOP cold:NPAST way NOM good:NPAST because drink:NPAST timemadereizōkoniirete-okō.ALLrefrigeratorDAT put:TE-ASP:VOL»This wine is better cold so let’s put it in the refrigerator until we drink it.«25Ibid., 357.26Iwasaki, Japanese, 147.
15Barešová and Schir · Kana or Kanji?A7:Momoko ga(name)okurete-kitemowakaruyōni,NOM DVdengonbannichizumessage.boardDAT mapokaite-oita.ACC draw:TE-ASP:PAST»I drew a map on the message board ahead of time so that Momoko would knoweven if she comes late.«Similar to the verb miru, oku was consistently written in kanji when used as a lexicalverb (A5), but in hiragana when used as an auxiliary, even in A6, where its lexical
life.5 The actual number of kanji used, for example, in newspapers was, however, much higher, because many kanji for personal and place names were not included among the 1,850. This list of Tōyō kanji (Chinese characters for daily use) was replaced in 1981 with 1,945 Jōyō kanji (Chinese characters for common use), and
24 VOLUME 22, o 1 2018 Corresponding author: Hana Pafiaiov, E-mail address: hana.pacaiovatuke.sk Acta Mechanica Slovaca 22 (1): 24 - 32, 2 Acta Mechanica Slovaca ISSN 1335-2393 www.actamechanica.sk How to Build Risk-based Thinking Methodology Based on Process Approach
Nov 12, 2015 · SNTSMS Society of New Testament Studies, Monograph Series SNTU Studien zum Neuen Testamen und seiner Umwelt SR Studies in Religion SSN Studia semitica Neerlandica ST Studia Theologica StudBT Studia Biblica e
Studia graeco-arabica 2 / 2012 “Sostanza”, “essenza” e “quiddità” 323 altre opere della letteratura filosofica siriaca risalenti allo stesso periodo (il commento alle Categorie di Sergio di Resh‘Aynā, il trattatello di logic
Acta Montanistica Slovaca Ročník 8 (2003), číslo 2-3 Theoretical basis and industrial applications of energy - saving and increased durability belt conveyors Jerzy Antoniak1 Teoretické základy a priemyselné aplikácie energeticky úsporných pásových dopravníkov so zvýšenou trvanlivosťou Theoretical basis used to build new generation of belt conveyors is presented is this paper.
compilation most often ascribed to Siraj al-Din ‘Umar ibn al-Wardi. His authorship and the manner of the text’s composition remain a subject of scholarly research, but it was a popular text in the Ottoman world, much copied, and translated into Turkish
LhBoTs Library of the hebrew Bible/old Testament studies nCB new Century Bible nehtBc neue echter Bibel novTsup novum Testamentum supplements NRTh La nouvelle revue théologique nToa novum Testamentum et orbis antiquus oBo orbis Biblicus et orientalis oiP oriental institute Publications oLa orientalia lo
Anaphora of Addai & Mari. Acts of the International Liturgy Congress; Rome, 25-26 October 2011, OCA 294, Rome 2013. 4 C. Giraudo, “Un congresso ‘eucaristico’ all’Università Gregoriana promosso dal Pontifi-cio Istituto Orientale,” in Idem, The Anaphoral Genesis of the Institution Narrative in Light of the Anaphora
2 For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on the ASTM website. 1
