Irish In Northern Ireland 3rd - Mercator English: Mercator Research Centre
The Irish language in education in Northern IrelandEuropean Research Centre onMultilingualism and Language Learninghosted byIRISHThe Irish language in education in Northern Ireland 3rd Edition c/o Fryske AkademyDoelestrjitte 8P.O. Box 54NL-8900 AB Ljouwert/LeeuwardenThe NetherlandsT0031 (0) 58 - 234 3027W www.mercator-research.euE mercator@fryske-akademy.nl Regional dossiers series
t carnie:cumnualAvailable in this series:This document was published by the Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualismand Language Learning with financial support from the Fryske Akademy and the Provinceof Fryslân. Mercator European Research Centre on Multilingualismand Language Learning, 2019ISSN: 1570 – 12393rd editionThe contents of this dossier may be reproduced in print, except for commercial purposes,provided that the extract is proceeded by a complete reference to the Mercator EuropeanResearch Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning.This regional dossier was originally compiled by Aodán Mac Póilin from Ultach Trust/Iontaobhas Ultach and Mercator Education in 1997. It was updated by Róise Ní Bhaoill fromUltach Trust/Iontaobhas Ultach in 2004. It has been updated by Réamonn Ó Ciaráin fromGael Linn in 2018.Acknowledgment:Mo bhuíochas do mo chomhghleacaithe in Gael Linn, Antoine Ó Coileáin agus MeghanMhic Thiarnáin, agus do Chomhairle na Gaelscolaíochta as a dtacaíocht agus a gcuidiúagus mé i mbun na hoibre seo, agus don Roinn Oideachais agus an Roinn Fostaíochta agusFoghlama as an eolas a cuireadh ar fáil. Tá Gael Linn aitheanta ina Ceanneagraíocht agForas na Gaeilge.Helga Kuipers-Zandberg has been responsible for the publication of this Mercator regionaldossier.Ladin; the Ladin language in education in Italy (2nd ed.)Latgalian; the Latgalian language in education in LatviaLithuanian; the Lithuanian language in education in PolandMaltese; the Maltese language in education in MaltaManx Gaelic; the Manx Gaelic language in education in the Isle of ManMeänkieli and Sweden Finnish; the Finnic languages in education in SwedenNenets, Khanty and Selkup; The Nenets, Khanty and Selkup language in educationin the Yamal Region in RussiaNorth-Frisian; the North Frisian language in education in Germany (3rd ed.)Occitan; the Occitan language in education in France (2nd ed.)Polish; the Polish language in education in LithuaniaRomani and Beash; the Romani and Beash languages in education in HungaryRomansh: The Romansh language in education in SwitzerlandSami; the Sami language in education in SwedenScots; the Scots language in education in Scotland (2nd ed.)Serbian; the Serbian language in education in HungarySlovak; the Slovak language in education in HungarySlovene; the Slovene language in education in Austria (2nd ed.)Slovene; the Slovene language in education in Italy (2nd ed.)Sorbian; the Sorbian language in education in Germany (2nd ed.)Swedish; the Swedish language in education in Finland (2nd ed.)Turkish; the Turkish language in education in Greece (2nd ed.)Udmurt; The Udmurt language in education in the Udmurt Republic in RussiaUkrainian and Ruthenian; the Ukrainian and Ruthenian language in education in PolandVõro; the Võro language in education in Estonia (2nd ed.)Welsh; the Welsh language in education in the UK
hool education.183Primary education.224Secondary education.265Vocational education.316Higher education.337Adult education.368Educational research.399Prospects.4110Summary of statistics.43Education system of Norhern Ireland in the UK.44References and further reading.45Addresses .52Other websites on minority languages.54What can the Mercator Research Centre offer you?.56Available in this series.60
Education and lesser used languagesGlossaryCEAThe Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examinationsand Assessment (Formerly CCEA)CCMSCouncil for Catholic Maintained SchoolsCnaGComhairle na Gaelscolaíochta (representative body for Irishmedium Education)2DEDepartment of EducationDELDepartment for Employment and LearningDENIDepartment of Education for Northern IrelandDfCDepartment for CommunitiesDfEDepartment for the EconomyDHSSPSDepartment of Health, Social Services and Public SafetyDoHDepartment of Health (since 9th May 2016)EAEducation AuthorityELBsEducation and Library BoardsETIEducation and Training InspectorateGCE ASGeneral Certificate of Education Advanced Subsidiary (Refersto first year of Advanced Level (A Level) – can be a stand-alonequalificationGCEGeneral Certificate of EducationGCE-A-levelGeneral Certificate of Education at Advanced LevelGCSEGeneral Certificate of Secondary EducationGNVQGeneral National Vocational QualificationNICIENorthern Ireland Council for Integrated EducationNDPBNon Departmental Public BodyPEEPPre-school Education Expansion ProgrammePEGPre-school Education GroupPGCEPostgraduate Certificate in Education
The Irish language in education in Northern IrelandForewordbackgroundRegional and minority languages are languages that differ fromthe official state language. The Mercator Research Centre onMultilingualism and Language Learning uses the definition forthese languages defined by the European Charter for Regionalor Minority Languages (ECRML):“Regional and minority languages are languages traditionallyused within a given territory of a state by nationals of that statewho form a group numerically smaller than the rest of the state’spopulation; they are different from the official language(s) ofthat state, and they include neither dialects of the officiallanguage(s) of the state nor the languages of migrants”. TheMercator Research Centre aims at the acquisition, applicationand circulation of knowledge about these regional and minoritylanguages in education. An important means to achieve thisgoal is the Regional dossiers series: documents that providethe most essential features of the education system of regionswith a lesser used regional or minority language.aimThe aim of the Regional dossiers series is to provide a concisedescription of European minority languages in education. Aspectsthat are addressed include features of the education system,recent educational policies, main actors, legal arrangements andsupport structures, as well as quantitative aspects such as thenumber of schools, teachers, pupils, and financial investments.Because of this fixed structure the dossiers in the series areeasy to compare.target groupThe dossiers serve several purposes and are relevant for policy makers, researchers, teachers, students and journalists whowish to explore developments in minority language schooling inEurope. They can also serve as a first orientation towards furtherresearch, or function as a source of ideas for improving educational provisions in their own region.link withThe format of the Regional dossiers follows the format of Eury-Eurydicedice – the information network on education in Europe – in order3
Education and lesser used languagesto link the regional descriptions with those of national educationsystems. Eurydice provides information on the administrationand structure of national education systems in the memberstates of the European Union.contentsEvery Regional dossier begins with an introduction about theregion concerned, followed by six sections that each deals witha specific level of the education system (e.g. primary education).Sections eight and nine cover the main lines of research intoeducation of the concerned minority language, the prospectsfor the minority language in general and for education inparticular. The tenth section gives a summary of statistics. Listsof regulations, publications and useful addresses concerningthe minority language, are given at the end of the dossier.4
The Irish language in education in Northern Ireland1languageIntroductionIrish, or Gaeilge, is an indigenous language spoken in theRepublic of Ireland and in Northern Ireland. It is a Celticlanguage closely related to Scottish Gaelic and Manx, and moredistantly related to Welsh, Breton and Cornish. Speakers of Irishin Northern Ireland are predominantly second language learnersand most people learn the language through the educationsystem or at informal language classes held throughout NorthernIreland. Irish Medium Education is a growing sector in both theRepublic of Ireland and in Northern Ireland. Three major dialectsof Irish are spoken in Ireland, Ulster, Connacht and Munster.The Ulster dialect is spoken and taught in Northern Ireland.populationIrish was used by a number of residual communities of nativespeakers in Northern Ireland when the state was founded in1921. These communities are no longer extant; the last nativespeaker of Tyrone Irish survived until 1970. At present the Irishspeaking community in Northern Ireland consists of those whohave learned Irish as a second language at secondary school,university, or at night classes; children who have been broughtup with Irish as their first language (often by parents who themselves learned or are learning it as a second language); and anincreasing number of children from English-speaking homes whoare being educated through the medium of Irish in Irish-mediumschools. While this community extends throughout Northern Ireland, it is largely an urban phenomenon with the highest concentration of speakers in Belfast, Derry and in the Newry and Armaghdistricts. Smaller rural pockets of speakers are also developingsuch as the Carntogher outside Maghera, County Derry.According to the 2001 Census, 167,490, or 10 .4%, of the totalpopulation in Northern Ireland aged three and over reportedsome knowledge of Irish. In the 2011 Census that figure hadrisen to 184,898, or 10.7 %. (Department of Finance andPersonnel, 2013) It has been previously estimated by scholarsthat between 13-15,000 speakers are ‘fluent speakers’ andthat a further 40-45,000 are ‘functional speakers of Irish’ whoclaim better than average ability to speak Irish (MacGiolla5
Education and lesser used languagesChríost, 2000).Given the growth of Irish Medium Education acomparative growth is to expected in the number of fluent andfunctional speakers. The following table illustrates the results ofthe Irish language question in the 2011 Census.Table 1 Knowledge of Irish of all persons aged 3 years and over Northern IrelandCensus 2011All persons1,735, 711Uses Irish as their home languageUnderstands spoken Irish but cannot read, write or speak IrishSpeaks, reads, write s and understand s IrishHas some knowledge of Irish4,13070,50164,847184,898Has no knowledge of Irish155,0813Source: Department of Finance and Personnel, 2013language statusPrior to the establishment of the Northern Ireland state in 1921,Irish was recognised as a school subject and as “Celtic” in6some third level institutions. This policy continued in spite ofattempts in the 1930s to restrict it further in the curriculum.Between 1921 and 1972, Northern Ireland had a measure ofdevolved government. During those years one party, the UlsterUnionist Party (UUP), which was hostile to the Irish language,was in power in the Northern Ireland Parliament. NorthernIreland was ruled directly from Westminster, London, from1972 until 1998. During this period the government’s attitude tothe Irish language changed somewhat. The first Irish-mediumschools were funded in the early 1980s and later that decadea number of Irish language projects received funding from thepublic purse. However, significant change was to occur onlyafter the signing of the Good Friday Agreement.Irish is not recognised as an official language in Northern Ireland,but the British Government has committed itself to variousmeasures in support of the language, as specified in the GoodFriday Agreement of 10 April 1998 (also known as the BelfastAgreement) (Northern Ireland Office, 1998). The Agreementstates that: “All participants recognise the importance of respect,understanding and tolerance in relation to linguistic diversity,including in Northern Ireland, the Irish language, Ulster- Scots
The Irish language in education in Northern Ireland7Figure 1: Proportion of respondents to the 2011 Census who stated that they canspeak Irish. From SkateTier, 2017.and the languages of the various ethnic communities, all ofwhich are part of the cultural wealth of the island of Ireland.”Furthermore, the British Government committed itself to taking“resolute action” to promote the Irish language and promisedmeasures to encourage its use in public and private life, in themedia and in education. It also provided for the establishment ofa North/South Ministerial Council, whose duties include settingup six cross-border implementation bodies funded by the twoadministrations. One of the bodies is the North/South LanguageBody which contains two associated agencies, Foras na Gaeilge(Foras na Gaeilge, 2018) (dealing with Irish) and Tha Boordo Ulstèr-Scotch (dealing with Ulster-Scots). Foras na Gaeilgehas a role in advising administrations, north and south, as wellas public bodies and other groups in the private and voluntarysectors in all matters relating to the Irish language.
Education and lesser used languagesThe British Government ratified the European Charter for Re gional or Minority Languages on 27 March 2001. Welsh, ScotsGaelic and Irish were given protection under Part 3 of theCharter, the highest level of protection, while Scots and UlsterScots were given more limited protection under Part 2. TheGovernment thus committed itself and the Northern IrelandAssembly to a wide range of measures to promote the Irishlanguage in public life. Measures relating to education includefacilitating Irish-medium education or the opportunity to studyIrish at all school levels where requested and, where numbersare sufficient; facilitating Irish-medium education or the teachingof the language at universities and in adult education; ensuringthe teaching of the history and culture associated with thelanguage; and providing the necessary teacher training.The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, a body crea ted by the Good Friday Agreement, submitted proposals forinclusion in a Northern Ireland Bill of Rights on 10th December82008. The form of a possible Bill of Rights has been debatedvigorously but very little progress has been made towardsthe adoption of the instrument. Its provisional view was “thatrather than make provision for ‘official’ or ‘national’ languagesand ‘second’ or ‘other’ languages, it is better to guaranteerights for all language users and make the extent of thoserights dependent on the extent to which each language isused and understood in the community.” The Commissionwishes “to guarantee a measure of recognition and respectto the users of all languages, dialects and other forms ofcommunication because they all contribute to the culturalwealth of the community.” Irish and Ulster Scots are alreadyentitled to a measure of protection under the Good FridayAgreement that other minority languages in Northern Irelanddo not. The commission recommends the inclusion of users ofsign language, Travellers, and speakers of Chinese and Urduas well as speakers of Irish and Ulster Scots in the proposedBill of Rights. The Commission’s proposals guarantee the rightto use any language or dialect for private and public purposes,where necessary through an interpreter. They endorse thecommitments made under the Good Friday Agreement and
The Irish language in education in Northern Irelandthe European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages.They call for legislation to ensure that, where there is sufficientdemand, members of all linguistic communities should havecertain rights in respect of their language or dialect, including“the right to learn in it and to be educated in and through it.” StAndrew’s Agreement was signed in October 2006. As part ofthat agreement, the British government promised to enact anIrish-language act for Northern Ireland in Westminster if it didnot come about through the Assembly.Irish speakers in Northern Ireland are still campaigning for AnIrish Language Act to protect their language rights.Organisations such as Pobal and Conradh na Gaeilge havecampaigned for many years for a comprehensive, rights-basedIrish-Language Act for the north. An Dream Dearg, a communityled campaign group seeking language rights, has organised aseries of protest marches in Belfast, Derry and Newry and hasgained considerable support among young people. An Dreamhas used social media effectively to mobilise support. There haslong been Welsh language legislation in Wales, Scots Gaeliclegislation in Scotland, and Irish language legislation in theRepublic of Ireland. Northern Ireland is the only jurisdiction onthese islands that does not have internal legislation to protect theindigenous language. (Conradh na Gaeilge, 2017 & Pobal, 2012)status ofThe Department of Education (hereafter DENI) has a statutorylanguageduty to encourage and facilitate Irish-medium education arisingeducationout of the Belfast Agreement and the subsequent Education(Northern Ireland) Order 1998. In 2000, DENI established twonew voluntary bodies to deal with Irish Medium Education.Firstly, Comhairle na Gaelscolaíochta (CnaG), the councilfor Irish-medium education, (Comhairle Na Gaelscolaíochta,2015), which was established in 2000 is a company limitedby guarantee, and without share capital. CnaG has charitablestatus and has been recognised as a charity by the CharityCommission for Northern Ireland in April 2017. Although CnaGis a non-statutory body and a charity, it receives its core fundingthrough grant-in-aid from DENI under the powers containedwithin Article 89 (2) of the Education (Northern Ireland) Order9
Education and lesser used languages1998. CnaG fulfils the duty specified within Article 89 (1) onbehalf of Department of Education: ‘It shall be the duty ofthe Department to encourage and facilitate the developmentof Irish-medium education’. This is recognised in the CnaG’sMemorandum and Articles as follows: ‘To promote for the bene fit of the public the development of all aspects of Irish-mediumeducation.’ As a result of the fact that CnaG’s funding comeswholly from DE, it was designated as a Non DepartmentalPublic Body (NDPB) in 2012. CnaG currently operates withinan annual budget of 786,000 to cover salaries, administrationcosts and the implementation of an annual business plan. Itemploys twelve staff consisting of a Chief Executive, SeniorEducation Officer, Senior Development Officer, Senior Finance/Administration/Personnel Officer, Clerical Officer, Clerical Ad minis tration Officer and 6 Advisory Officers.Iontaobhas na Gaelscolaíochta, a trust fund for Irish-mediumeducation that was established in February 2001, received aninitial payment of 1.25m from Government. This funding was10later supplemented by a further grant of half a million pounds.It is administered by a small voluntary board of trustees appointed by the DENI and CnaG. Most of its funding is directedat non-funded schools and preschools.educationThe education system in Northern Ireland differs from thosesystemof England, Wales and Scotland in some respects, althoughit shares a few basic principles, including that of compulsoryeducation for all children between the ages of 5 (year 1) and16 (year 12). In principle, educational provision should be free,but some schools which do not fit the educational or numericalcriteria laid down by government are not funded. All statefunded schools in Northern Ireland, including Irish-mediumschools, are expected to follow the statutory Northern IrelandCurriculum, the most recent documentation was published in2009. (UK Government).The 12 years of compulsory schooling are divided into primarylevel and secondary level. The curriculum is defined in terms offour key stages, two at each level. The key stages are as follows:
The Irish language in education in Northern IrelandTable 2: Key Stages in Northern Ireland Schools CurriculumKey stageAgeClassFoundation4 yrs – 6 yrsClass 1 and 2Key stage 16 yrs – 8 yrsClass 3 and 4Key stage 28 yrs – 11 yrsClass 5, 6 and 7Key stage 311 yrs – 14 yrsClass 8, 9 and 10Key stage 414 yrs – 16 yrsClass 11 and 12The flexibility of the NI curriculum gives schools and teachersthe freedom to use their professional judgment to decide whichindividual topics to teach in class and which resources to useto deliver the curriculum. The DEN sets the minimum contentwhich schools are required by law to deliver. This provides aframework upon which each school can build to meet the needsof its pupils and to reflect its individual ethos. A copy of TheEducation (Curriculum Minimum Content) Order (NI) 2007 canbe accessed on the Department’s website. The Council for theCurriculum, Examinations and Assessment (hereafter: CCEA)website details the Areas of Learning at each Key Stage, alongwith the statutory requirements:Pupils are assessed at the end of each key stage in corecurriculum subjects, and also have to study a number of othercompulsory subjects. Six cross-curricular educational themesmust be provided, two of which are Education for MutualUnderstanding and Cultural Heritage.The education system in Northern Ireland has in addition a number of distinctive features. Although early attempts were madeto create a non-denominational system of education in NorthernIreland, it developed along denominational lines. In the 1930san agreement was reached with the three main Protestantchurches – the Church of Ireland, Presbyterian and Methodist Churches – under which they eventually transferred theirschools to the ownership of the state and in return they receivedkey roles in the management of the education system. Theseschools are referred to as either “state” or “controlled” schoolsand educate mainly Protestant children. The Catholic Churchretained ownership of their schools but, as a result of a series11
Education and lesser used languagesof negotiations over school management arrangements, Catholic schools now have both their full recurrent and capital costsmet from public funds in the same way as state schools. Theseschools are referred to as Catholic Maintained schools andeducate mainly Catholic children. Voluntary Gram mar schoolshave either Catholic or non-denominational management andeducate either Catholic or Protestant children. There are alsoIndependent schools which are not in receipt of governmentfunding and Integrated schools which essentially aim to educateCatholic and Protestant children together. The first integratedschool was established in 1981. Secondary education in Northern Ireland retains largely a selective system with pupils going togrammar schools or secondary schools according to academicability. With the exception of grammar schools, half of which aresingle-sex, most other secondary schools in Northern Irelandare coeducational.The Irish-medium education sector also includes a number12of different types of school. The term ‘free-standing’ refers toan Irish -medium primary or secondary school which is notattached to, or part of, an English-medium school. An Irishmedium ‘unit’ operates as a self-contained provision under themanagement of a host English-medium school. IndependentIrish-medium schools are schools which are not funded bythe state: they normally develop into free- standing schoolson receipt of funding. Both Irish-medium schools and un itsadopt a total immersion approach whereby all teaching isdelivered through the medium of Irish. Irish-medium schoolsare managed by boards of governors which are appointedmainly by the parent bodies, with Educational Authority (EA)representation. Irish-medium units are under the managementof the host English-medium school. At present, some Irish-medium units are in Catholic schools under the managementof CCMS. This has come to change as in previous times, allIrish-medium schools were under the management of CCMS.In the following sections, the use and position of Irish in theeducational system of Northern Ireland are discussed in moredetail.
The Irish language in education in Northern Irelandprivate andThe vast majority of schools are state-funded, and managedpublicby Boards of Governors, all of which have teacher and parentrepresentatives. These schools, which reflect the history ofdenominational education in Northern Ireland, fall into a widerange of sub-sections, depending on their background, management structure and funding mechanism. Independent or privateschools receive no direct aid from public funds.bilingualA few Irish Medium primary and secondary schools in North erneducation forms Ireland operate what are called units connected to an EnglishMedium Schools but the majority of Irish Medium Schoolsschools are stand-alone.administrationOverall responsibility for all aspects of state-funded (also calledgrant-aided) education in Northern Ireland lies with the DENI.When the Northern Ireland Assembly was suspended in 2002and again in 2016, DENI became the responsibility of a Ministerof State in the Northern Ireland Office who is directly appointedby the UK government in London. DENI formulates educationalpolicy in Northern Ireland, and all major funding decisionslie with the Department. At local level, educational provision,involving both capital and running costs, is administered by theEducation Authority (EA) which replaced the five Education andLibrary Boards (hereafter: ELBs) when the EA was establishedunder the Education Act Northern Ireland 2014 and becameoperational on 01 April 2015. It is a non-departmental bodysponsored by the DE. The EA manages some schools, andis the channel for the funding of others. The EA providea curriculum advisory and support service to schools undertheir management, and advise government departments (andother agencies) both on the needs of their schools and on theformulation of policy. The language of administration is English.The Board of the EA is made up of 20 members plus the Chair.Only one Board Member represents the Irish Medium Sector(Education Authority, 2018).inspectionWithin DENI, the Education and Training Inspectorate (ETI)is responsible for monitoring, inspecting and reporting on the13
Education and lesser used languagesstandard of education and training provided by schools. Itadministers a programme of inspections which result in reportsfor publication. It provides relevant advice to the Department ofEducation, the Department for Communities, and the Depart ment for the Economy.supportThe DENI is responsible for all resource issues relating tostructureschools and the Youth Service; the latter advises DENI and theEA on the personal and social development of children, youngpeople and young adults. DENI funds the expenditure incurredby the EA, who have statutory responsibility for the provisionof services. All grant-aided schools have their recurrent costsfully funded by DENI, either directly or through the EA. DENIalso provides 100% grant-aid for capital costs for most schools,although a small number of maintained schools and voluntarygrammar schools receive up to 85%. Capital funding is paiddirectly by DENI to all categories of school except controlled or14“state” schools. The Department also provides specific grantsto many schools, in particular, under the School ImprovementProgramme, to meet government priorities. These grants areeither paid directly, or, for some categories of school, throughthe EA.In addition to the Department of Education, several other orga nisations operate within the sector. Council for the Curriculum,Examinations and Assessments (CCEA), established in 1994, provides advice to the Minister of Education on curri culum,assessment and examination matters, conducts key stageassessments, the General Certificate of Secondary Education (hereafter: GCSE) and General Certificate of Education (here after:GCE) examinations, and administers the TransferProcedure Tests (formally called “11 ”). It has a regulatory rolein relation to standards in GCSE, GCE and General NationalVocational Qualification (GNVQ) examinations offered in Northern Ireland, and provides information and produces teachingmaterials relating to the implementation of curriculum requirements and assessment arrangements in schools.As has been stated, the Council for Catholic Maintained Schools(CCMS) is the advocate for the Catholic Maintained schools
The Irish language in education in Northern Irelandsector in Northern Ireland. The CCMS represents trustees,schools and governors on issues such as raising and maintainingstandards, the school estate and teacher employment. It alsosupports trustees in the provision of school buildings, andgovernors and principals in the effective management andcontrol of schools.9 All the Irish- medium units in NorthernIreland are within the Catholic maintained schools sector.The Northern Ireland Council for Integrated Education (NICIE)co-ordinates efforts to develop Integrated Education and toassist parent groups in opening new integrated schools. Theseschools provide for religious balance (Catholic and Protestant)in pupil
European Research Centre on Multilingualism and Language Learning Regional dossiers series c/o Fryske Akademy Doelestrjitte 8 P.O. Box 54 NL-8900 AB Ljouwert/Leeuwarden The Netherlands T 0031 (0) 58 - 234 3027 W www.mercator-research.eu E mercator@fryske-akademy.nl IRISH The Irish language in education in Northern Ireland 3rd Edition
average ability to speak Irish.2 The following table illustrates the results of the Irish language question in the 2001 Census. Knowledge of Irish of all persons aged 3 years and over Northern Ireland Census 2001 All persons 1,617,957 Understands spoken Irish bu t cannot read, write or sp eak Irish 36,479 Speaks but does not read or w rite .
Irish is recorded to be one of the oldest and most historic written languages in the world (Nettle and Romaine, 2000; Government of Ireland, 2010). The Irish language is the national and first official language of Ireland in accordance with article 8 of the Constitution of Ireland, the other official language being English. .
» Seek solutions for undocumented Irish citizens in the US to regularise their status Ireland will ensure that the welfare of the Irish abroad remains at the heart of our diaspora support. Welfare Care for the most vulnerable and marginalised Irish emigrants will remain the primary focus of the Government's Emigrant Support Programme. Irish
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Irish-speakers were pushed westwards (Hickey, 2011, p. 17). By doing so, in the 18th century Irish speakers were living in rural areas, mostly poor and catholic. The English language was associated with township and property. Just two cities remand Irish-speaking, Galway and Drogheda (Leith, 1997, p. 169). Most of the Irish
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Answer Key A Beast / Post-Reading / Activity 1 Hand out the worksheets to your students. Ask them to draw and describe the beast. When they finish, ask the students to walk around the class, find a partner, and then show and say what they have written. Display their worksheets on the bulletin board. Possible answer: The beast has got a very long body with brown spots A Beast / Post-Reading .
