State Of Urban Water Supply - WaterAid India
State of Urban WaterSupply in India2018
WaterAid IndiaWaterAid/ Ronny Sen2
State of Urban WaterSupply in India2018Cover photo: WaterAid/ Ronny Sen
WaterAid/ Ronny Sen
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 20185
WaterAid IndiaFOREWORDExhibitions India GroupFortunately, the rains have pushed back Capethat expand sustainably, operate efficientlyTown’s dreaded Day Zero – the day whenand maintain a high quality of life for residents.municipal water supplies officially run out – fearsIntegrating intelligent water technologies allowsto 2019. But, the water crisis in the most iconicutilities to manage the overall distribution ofcity on the tip of Africa should serve as a wakewater around the city efficiently; identify andup call for the whole world, especially countriesmanage water loss; predict demand and connectlike India where water shortages are projectedinto wider smart city data systems.to become increasingly common in urban areas.Alarmingly, Bengaluru is next to go thirsty. India’sSilicon Valley is running out of water in so muchas experts foresee Bengaluru being evacuated by2025.Like Cape Town, India, too, is dangerously low onwater. More than half of India’s total water supplycomes from groundwater resources, which havebeen severely depleted because of excessive use.The Asian Development Bank has forecast thatIndia will have a water deficit of 50 percent by2030.To improve the efficiency of water management,a collaborative approach involving the localauthorities, community and various otherstakeholders in implementing short-term andlong-term solutions is required.This report strongly recommends concertedefforts be undertaken to offer incentives forproviding reliable and affordable services;reduce nonrevenue water from leaks, theft ormetering inaccuracies, etc.; penalise industriesthat pollute water bodies; ensure strict vigilanceand regulations to bring illegal pumping fromGrowth of urban populations and new propertyunderground reservoirs under control; amongstdevelopments, coupled with incidences of waterothers.mismanagement, below average rainfall patternsand droughts, pose increasing risks to urbanwater supply with serious implications for thefuture health and well-being of urban citizens.In order to avoid the fate of Cape Town, IndianFinally, the findings suggest that improving urbanwater supply in urban India requires innovativegovernance and institutional arrangementsthat blend the strengths of public, private andcommunity partnerships.cities will have to look to adopt solutions andtechnologies to help them address the mostPrem Behlcritical issues in water networks. Efficient waterChairmanmanagement is key to building smart citiesExhibitions India Group
State of Urban Water Supply in India 2018FOREWORDWaterAid IndiaCape Town is fast running out of water. The crisisfor everyone, everywhere, by 2030 that wein Cape Town, the second-most populous urbanare happy to join hands with the Exhibitionsarea in South Africa after Johannesburg, did notIndia Group for the 5th India Water Expo 2018happen overnight. Rather, it is a result of bothwith its focus on ‘clean water for a sustainableclimate and manmade crises- three years of lowfuture’, as a knowledge partner. This documentrainfall and drought coupled with a growingaims to give a snapshot of the urban drinkingpopulation, an increase in water consumption andwater situation from a policy, program andthe fact that 60 per cent of Cape Town residentsinstitutional and systems perspective. Every timeare not saving any water.we produce such reports, dearth of reliable,This is a cautionary tale for India. In 2011, about377 million Indians lived in urban areas andby 2030, the urban population is expected torise to 590 million. The demand for water isonly expected to rise as the country urbanisesfurther. Addressing the multiple challenges facingurban water supply- from access to safe andaffordable drinking water to improving servicelevel benchmarks and to stringent regulatoryauthorities- all need a combination of short-termand medium-term solutions. It becomes crucial,concurrent and actionable data emerges as achallenge, as it was the case this time too. Whilethe team has attempted to put together theentire challenge of urban water supply succinctlywithin a small space, I see it as an opportunityto build on it. There is a growing need for theknowledge community, to work together withthe governments and other agencies to find along-term solution for this- by way of allocatingresources, conducting research and making theinformation available in the public domain.therefore, to create institutions with clearlyLastly, I thank Exhibitions India Group for thisdefined roles and responsibilities along with clearopportunity and my colleagues for their hardlines of accountability. It also means ensuringwork behind this document.leadership role to the community and variousstakeholders in implementing the solutions.It is in this context which is also in sync withthe goal of WaterAid to ensure sustainableWASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) servicesAvinash KumarDirector - Programmes and PolicyWaterAid India
WaterAid IndiaAbbreviationsAMRUT Atal Mission for Rejuvenation andPHED Public Health and EngineeringUrban TransformationDepartmentAUWSP Accelerated Urban Water SupplyPIB Press Information BureauProgrammeBIS Bureau of Indian StandardsCGWA Central Ground Water AuthorityCGWB Central Ground Water BoardCPCB Central Pollution Control BoardCPHEEO Central Public Health EnvironmentalPPP Public Private PartnershipSBM Swachh Bharat MissionSLB Service Level BenchmarkSPCB State Pollution Control BoardUIG Urban Infrastructure Governanceand Engineering OrganizationULB Urban Local BodiesCWC Central Water CommissionWSP Water and Sanitation ProgramDJB Delhi Jal BoardWSS Water Supply and SanitationGoI Government of IndiaHRIDAY Heritage City Development andAugmentation YojanaIDSMT Integrated Development for Small andMedium TownsJNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National UrbanRenewal MissionLPCD Litres per Capita per DayMoHUA Ministry of Housing and UrbanaffairsMoUD Ministry of Urban DevelopmentNRW Non-revenue WaterNSSO National Sample Survey Office
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 2018Table ofContents1. Executive summary102. An overview of urban water supply in india123. Governance and regulation164. Key public sector programmes185. Public private partnership (PPP) projects in urban water supply216. Service delivery levels and benchmarks237. Water quality258. Water resourcing issues289. Key challenges for urban poor2910. Reforms in urban water supply30References33
WaterAid/ Mansi ThapliyalWaterAid India1.Executivesummary10Water is a natural and economic resource, whichis unique and irreplaceable. At the same time,it is unevenly distributed on our planet, whichunderscores its competing and conflicting nature.A suitable example of the impact of unequaldistribution of this scarce resource on an everincreasing population is the case of India. With
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 201817.74 per cent of the world’s population, India has2.45 per cent of the world’s land resources and 4.5per cent of fresh water resource (Ministry of WaterResources, December 2008).On 28 July 2010, through Resolution 64/292,State of Urban Water Supply in India-2018the United Nations General Assemblyseeks to provide readers with a brief overviewexplicitly recognised the human right to waterof the urban water supply conundrum. Theand sanitation, and acknowledged that cleanpublication aims to highlight some key stepsdrinking water and sanitation are essentialthat are required to ensure that adequateto the realisation of all human rights. Inand safe drinking water supply services canIndia, the right to water is not enshrinedreach the urban poor at affordable rates. Theas a fundamental right in the constitution.publication also recognises that for urbanHowever, both the courts, at the state as wellresidents other than the poor, appropriateas federal level have interpreted Article 21tariffs should be based on the principle ofof the Indian Constitution, the right to life,consumption.as encompassing the right to safe and basicwater and sanitation.One of the limitations of this report is that it isa secondary study based mainly on literatureNonetheless, given the mismanagementreview and analyses. In absence of updatedof water combined with excessive use ofdata, the publication relies on Census 2011,groundwater and inefficient use of watergovernment websites, and reports from ain irrigation, the ‘right to water’ is definitelywide variety of organisations. It would alsounder threat and calls for urgent attentionbe pertinent to point out that for appropriatetowards the urban water managementdecision making for urban water, the qualitychallenge. The urban water sector is facingof information and data will need to improvethe challenge of water resourcing on onedramatically from where it is as of now.hand, and limited institutional and financialcapacity to deliver basic safe water supply toall, on the other.11
WaterAid/ Mansi ThapliyalWaterAid India2.An overviewof urbanwater supplyin India12In 2011, for the first time since independence,the Census revealed that the absolute increase inpopulation in urban areas was more than that ofrural areas, and the urban population is expectedto grow to 590 million by 2030. The proportion ofurban population to overall population increasedfrom 27.81 per cent in 2001 to 31.16 per centin 2011 Census (Census of India, 2011). Out ofthe total 370 million inhabiting urban India,65.4 million were slum dwellers (Dashi, 2013).
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 2018Interestingly, the growth rate of cities with lessthan a million population is faster than largemega cities with more than a million people.TABLE 1 India’s Population in million20012011DecadalGrowth 31.81Source: censusindia.gov.inThis large and rapid population increase inAccess to safe drinking water is an importanturban areas is presenting urban plannersmeasure of the socio-economic status of thewith new and rapidly growing problemshousehold and fundamental to the health ofpertaining to the delivery of basic servicesits members by preventing infection, illness– access to water, sewerage system andand death. In India, the main sources of watersanitation.supply includes:TABLE 2 Sources of water supply in IndiaPrimary SourcesSecondary SourcesRiverCanalsPond/ Lake/ TanksDam ReservoirsRainwaterBottled WaterGlacier MeltsTanker SuppliesGroundwater/ Hand Pump/ Borewell/ Tubewell/Covered and uncovered wellsSea WaterTap water from treated sourceTap water from untreated sourceAtmospheric Water13
WaterAid IndiaTABLE 3 Per cent of urban households having access to improved source of drinking waterSurveyImprovedsource ofdrinkingwater ater(%)UncovCoverederedwellwater (%) wellwater (%)Totalwellwater(%)Hand pump/tube 721.4Census201189628.670.66.2--20.8Source: Census of India, 1991 and 2001 and 20112.1 Coverage and accessibility of safeGRAPH 1drinking water in urban IndiaDistribution of main source of drinking water (urban)There has been a gradual increase from1991 to 2001 in the percentage of urbanhouseholds with access to ‘improved’70.668.7Census 20111Census 2001drinking water, but then a decline waswitnessed in 2011. However, this declineis due to the availability of granular data.20.8 21.4Earlier all tap water was taken as ‘improved’,whereas disaggregated data has been made6.27.72.5available in 2011 for treated and untreatedtap water categories. Similar is the case withwater from wells. If untreated tap waterTap WaterWellHand pump/Tubewell2.3OthersourcesSource: CPHEEO, 2011and uncovered wells were included in theimproved category, then the proportion ofhouseholds that have access to improvedsources, would be 98 per cent in 2011.the households had access to safe drinkingwater, in 2011, it increased to 70.6 percent(refer to graph 1). Out of these 70.6 per centA closer look at the comparative figures ofhouseholds, 71 per cent had drinking waterlast two Census reveal that the improvementavailable within premises, 20.7 near premises,in access to safe drinking water in urban Indiaand 8.1 away from premises as indicated inhas been mainly because of increased accessgraph 2 (CPHEEO, 2011).to tap water. While in 2001, 68.7 per cent of1The World Bank definition of an improved drinking water source includes "piped water on premises (piped household waterconnection located inside the user’s dwelling, plot or yard), and other improved drinking water sources (public taps or standpipes,tube wells or boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs, and rainwater collection)." Source: anitation14
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 2018GRAPH 2Households using tap water (in per WithinPremisesNearPremises2.2 Pipe water supply in slumsContrary to the general assumption that theslum population, being the poorest, lacksbasic amenities such as drinking water,Census data reveals that slum householdshave better access to tap water than thenon-slum populace. 69.9 per cent of nonslum urban households have access to tapdrinking water whereas in slums this figureis 74 per cent. However, if we look into thedata carefully, the slum dwellers’ access5.4Slum2.91Away frompremisesNon-SlumSource: Sathpathy, 2014connections but a community stand-post(near premises or away from premises). Oneof the major reasons for the absence of tapwater within the premises in slums is dueto insistence on providing valid ownershipcertificates by the departments responsiblefor drinking water supply in urban areas.Since many slums are still not notified bythe government, the slum households’application for piped water connection isrejected by the department.to tap water was not through individual15
WaterAid/ Ronny SenWaterAid India3.Governanceandregulation16Water supply in India is a State subject.Constitutional provisions enable both, thecentre and the state, to perform a crucial rolein planning and managing water resources andfinancing water supply. The states may givethe responsibility of managing water supply tomunicipalities in urban areas, called Urban LocalBodies (ULB). Historically in post-independenceera, water supply was entrusted to be deliveredby urban local bodies in many states across thecountry.
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 2018However, the responsibility of providingThe overall policy framework is defined bywater supply was transferred from localthe National Water Policy, formulated byelected bodies to water supply agencies in thethe Ministry of Water Resources, to governdecade 1970-80 in many states. At present,the planning and development of waterstates generally plan, design and executeresources and their optimum utilisation.water supply schemes (and often operateThe first National Water Policy was adoptedthem) through their State Departmentsin September 1987 and was reviewed and(Public Health Engineering Department) orupdated in 2002 and later in 2012 (PIB, 2012).state owned Corporations, such as UttarIn January 2012, Ministry of Water Resources,Pradesh Jal Nigam and Maharashtra JeevanGovernment of India, released a draftPradhikaran, or State Water Boards, such asNational Water Policy for the considerationTamil Nadu Water and Drainage Board, Delhiand opinion of state governments and otherJal Board, and so on. Such approaches helpstakeholders.play a central role in governance of watersupply and the formulation of water supplypolicy, while the centre oversees the interstate distribution of water. This practice haslimited the role of ULBs in provisioning ofdrinking water services since then.While improvements towards access tosafe water supply are being taken upin government’s policies, the alarmingvulnerability caused by depleting aquifersremains largely unaddressed due to thelack of political will to address the issue. GoIThough Ministry of Housing and Urbanreleased a Model Bill for the Conservation,Affairs (MoHUA) is primarily responsible forProtection, Regulation and Management offinancing urban water supply along withGroundwater in May 2016 and a Nationaltheir state counterpart departments forWater Framework Bill 2016 to provideurban development, there are other closeuniform national legal framework to manageconnections with ministries, such as Ministryriver water at basin level in a better andof Drinking Water and Sanitation, Ministryefficient way. Both bills could have had aof Water Resources, Ministry of Health andlarge implication in controlling exploitationFamily Welfare, and Ministry of Environment,of groundwater and managing river water,Forest and Climate Change, amongst others.but in the absence of being enacted, theThe current institutional framework for urbanthreat of water shortage and recurringwater supply is dogged by multiplicity ofdrought situation continues for many citiesinstitutions responsible for different functionsin India. The key regulatory authority inwithin delivery of urban water supply servicesIndia for urban water supply are Centralwith often weak accountability and blurredGround Water Authority, Central Waterreporting lines.Commission, Central Pollution Control BoardThe policy framework in urban water sectoroperates at multiple levels from centre tostate and from state to cities and towns.and Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairswith their counterpart state departments andinstitutions.17
WaterAid/ Mansi ThapliyalWaterAid India4.Key publicsectorprograms18The view that cities are central to the country’seconomic growth and development has gainedwide acceptance in the past two decades. However,this world view was not accompanied initiallyby adequate and corresponding investments inbasic infrastructure, not only to meet today’srequirements but of the cities in near future as well.
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 2018The first central level efforts to providecentral assistance to the urban sector. Sincedrinking water in cities and towns wereits inception, the JNNURM focused on sectors,undertaken through the Integratedsuch as water supply, sewerage, drainageDevelopment for Small and Medium Townsand urban transport under the Urban(IDSMT,1979) and Accelerated UrbanInfrastructure Governance (UIG) component.Water Supply Programme (AUWSP, 1992)followed by Two Million Housing ProgrammeDuring 2014–15, the central government(1998–1999), Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojanalaunched four new schemes to expedite(2001), Total Sanitation Campaign (1992, buturban infrastructure and service provision.renamed Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan in 2012 andThese schemes are: (1) Atal Mission foras Swachh Bharat Mission in 2014), UrbanRejuvenation and Urban TransformationReform Incentive Fund (2003), and Pooled(AMRUT), that replaced JNNURM, focussingFinance Development Scheme (2006) (Bharaton water supply and sewerage improvement;and Sarkar, 2016). However, the landmark(2) Smart Cities Mission, aimed at developinginitiative that brought India’s urban agendasmart solutions for selected urban areas; (3)to the centre stage for the first time was theSwachh Bharat Mission – Urban, focussed onJawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewalwaste management and sanitation; and (4)Mission (JNNURM) launched in DecemberHeritage City Development and Augmentation2005. JNNURM was the first massive urbanYojana (HRIDAY), for addressing thedevelopment programme of the country anddevelopment of heritage cities.established the foundation for large scaleSmartCitiesMissionAMRUT Under AMRUT, the state-level plans of INR 77,640 crore for 500 cities have beenapproved. The list of 99 smart cities in India have beenidentified. Water related topics to be addressedWater supply contracts for 494 projects worthand implemented include smart meterINR 19,428 crore have been approved for 500management, leakage identification,cities.preventive maintenance, and water qualitymodelling.19
WaterAid IndiaSBM(Urban) SBM guideline refers to adequate waterHRIDAY The scheme is being implemented in 12supply arrangements to be made for properheritage cities with a total outlay of INR 500functioning of toilets.crores focusing on service delivery, includingdrinking water facility and taps.However, toilets with no water supply inurban areas have decreased marginally from Due to be completed in November 2018, only16.5 per cent in 2012 to 11.9 per cent in 201648 per cent projects have been completed till(NSSO 2015-16). The numbers have improvedMay 2018.thereafter, but SBM-MIS does not report ofwater availability.Overall, JNNURM in the past, and now AMRUT,address the same issues and challenges, butthe current missions have adopted a morefocussed approach by splitting componentsacross individual missions. Furthermore, thegeographical coverage and financial scale ofthe new missions are greater than those ofJNNURM.20
WaterAid/ Poulomi BasuState of Urban Water Supply in India - 20185.Public privatepartnership(PPP) projectsin urbanwater supplyHistorically, almost all water supply provisionshave been managed by the public sectorthrough municipal or state-level departmentsor parastatals. However, benchmarking servicesshow that the government is unable to muster therequired finances, competencies and capacitiesto meet the growing demands of the citizensfor the services. As a result, a number of states/cities have experimented with PPPs in water andsewerage services. The idea was that private21
WaterAid Indiaplayers would not only bring much needed capital,but also introduce efficiency into operations anddelivery that would unlock the financial potentialof the sector. Besides, both the 2002 and 2012National Water Policy recognised the importanceof PPPs to solve water issues in urban areas.Against this sector backdrop, some citiesAmong its conclusions, the reportbegan to attempt PPPs in water supplyrecommended that the cities should:operations in the early 1990s, followingeconomic liberalisation. Many of these early through better project preparation andprojects failed because of poor enablingcontracts;frameworks for private investment, poorproject preparation, weak financial strengthencourage private sector investment strengthen public sector institutions toof project proponents, and opposition tobuild on contributions from the privateprivate sector participation. Subsequently,sector;in the first half of the 2000s, a shift in focustowards distribution services took place,where a management contract model wasexplored, and governments started providingfunding to meet a significant part of theinvestment needs while the private sectorfocused on creating efficiencies (WSP, 2014).As per the World Bank study in 2014, theimportant lessons drawn from PPP Projects inwater sector are: projects occurred where bulk wateravailability was guaranteed; there was a lack of information on existinginfrastructure; the reasons and objective of the projectwas not always accounted for in PPPdesign and monitoring; and lastly financial sustainability was notaddressed in the PPP design.22 and build public sector capacity tomanage PPPs.
State of Urban Water Supply in India - 20186.6.1 Service level benchmarksServicedeliverylevels andbenchmarksThe share of urban population in India is witnessing a rapidgrowth but basic service levels remain well below the desiredlevels. A key reason is that investment in infrastructure hasnot always resulted in commensurate outcomes. As a result,there is a need for a shift in focus from infrastructure creationto delivery of service outcomes. In this context, the servicelevel benchmarks (SLBs) for the urban water and sanitationsector have been formulated and can broadly be defined asa minimum set of standard performance parameters that arecommonly understood and used by all stakeholders across thecountry. This has also become the cornerstone of the urbanreform agenda being implemented as part of various centrallysponsored schemes. The principle of benchmarking has beenfurther endorsed by the 13th Finance Commission, which hasincluded SLB as one of the nine conditions for the allocation ofperformance-based grants to ULBs.6.2 Reason for benchmarking the water sectorScarce and poor quality municipal water is arguably one of themost pressing problems facing developing countries, includingIndia, where only 70 per cent of the urban households haveaccess to piped water supply (Census 2011). Though the percapita availability as reported ranges from 90 to 120 litres perday, but no city yet offers continuous water supply (WSP, 2014).More than 40 percent of water produced in many Indian citiesdoes not earn any revenue, be it water lost before reachingthe consumer or high volumes of water not being billed for orboth, therefore contributing to poor cost recovery and hencepoor service quality and coverage (PC Agarwal, April 2008). Thisis much higher than the non-revenue water (NRW) benchmarkof 15 per cent followed in developed countries and the 20 percent benchmark that is set as the SLB by the MoHUA for Indiancities. All these performance indicators fall well short of theGovernment of India's (GoI) service benchmarks: 100 per centwater coverage, a 24/ 7 water supply of 135 litres per capita perday (lpcd) and 100 per cent cost recovery.23
WaterAid IndiaTABLE 4 Performance indicators for water supplyS. No.IndicatorBenchmark1Coverage of water supply connections100%2Per capita supply of water135 lpcd (cities)3Extent of non-revenue water20%4Extent of metering100%5Continuity of water supplied24 hrs6Efficiency in redressal of customer complaints80%7Quality of water supplied100%8Cost recovery100%9Efficiency in collection of water charges90%Source: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs ( MoHUA), Government of India6.3 Government of India norms for per6 hours, compared with 24 hours in Brazil andcapita supply of waterChina and 22 hours in Vietnam. Per capitaGoI establishes norms for per capita supplyof water and are based on classes of citiesbut most states have their own classificationsand norms. GoI norms propose the followingurban water supply: (i) 150lpcd for metrocities (which are all equipped with seweragesystems); (ii) 135lpcd for non-metro townsand cities equipped with a sewerage system;(iii) 70lpcd for towns and cities not equippedwith a sewerage system; and (iv) 40lpcd forthe population relying on public standpipes.As per 2011 Census, 70.6 per cent of theurban population in India is covered byindividual connections, compared with 91per cent in China, 86 per cent in South Africaand 80 per cent in Brazil. Duration of watersupply in Indian cities ranges from 1 hour to24supply of water in Indian cities ranges from37lpcd to 298lpcd for a limited duration,while Paris supplies 150lpcd continuously andMexico 171lpcd for 21 hours a day (Draft CitySanitation Plan Udaipur, 2014). Most Indiancities do not have metering for residentialwater connections. These figures reflect thatcities and towns of India are visibly deficientin the quality of services they provide. The120 city sanitation plans being preparedwith funding assistance from Ministry ofUrban Development (now known as MoHUA)and external agencies like GIZ, JICA, UNHabitat, USAID and WSP, need to be actuallyimplemented on ground and thereafterits progress needs to be monitored andevaluated.
WaterAid/ Prashanth VishwanathanState of Urban Water Supply in India - 20187.Water quality7.1 Water quality standardsDrinking water is water intended for human consumption fordrinking and cooking purposes from any source. It includeswater (treated or untreated) supplied by any means for humanconsumption.Water is defined as safe if it is free from biologicalcontamination (guinea worm, cholera, typhoid etc.) and withinpermissible limits of chemical contamination (excess fluoride,brackishness, iron, arsenic, nitrates, etc.) as per IS-10500standard of Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).25
WaterAid IndiaThe BIS drinking water specification (ISsanitation (WSS) operations, the solution10500:1991) was drawn up in 1983 andto the problem of rising river pollutionits most recent revision dates back to Julyhas too often been to build wastewater2010 (Amendment No. 3). The standard wastreatment plants, that treat wastewateradopted by BIS with the following objectives:generated before it is discharged into rivers. To assess the quality of water resources,and However in many cities, only a fraction ofthe wastewater generated and dischargedinto sewers actually reach the treatmentTo check the effectiveness of waterfacilities, as sewers are silted up because oftreatment and supply by the concernedpoor maintenance and pumping stationsauthorities.are faced with unreliable power supply.Moreover, only a third of urban houses inUniform Drinking Water Quality MonitoringIndia are connected to the sewer system.Protocol, 2013, recommends qualitativeTherefore, a bulk of our waste eventually findtesting for presence of bacteriologicalits pathways in our water bodies includingpollution to be carried out twice a year - pre-Nallahs and rivers without undergoingmonsoon (May-June) and post-monsoon. Allany treatment. Apparently, actions by thesamples that indicate contamination usingCentral and State Pollution Control BoardsField Testing Kits shall be referred to thehave not gone beyond issuing notices to thenearest accredited or government waterstates with identified polluted river locationsquality testing laboratory for confirmation.without reaching any logical conclusion.Urban water supply quality is tested in labsat water treatment plants. Also, in cases ofoutbreak of water borne diseases, waterquality surveillance is done by the healthdepartment largely. Besides governmenttesting labs, privately owned lab
2. An overview of urban water supply in india 3. Governance and regulation 4. Key public sector programmes 5. Public private partnership (PPP) projects in urban water supply 6. Service delivery levels and benchmarks 7. Water quality 8. Water resourcing issues 9. Key challenges for urban poor 10. Reforms in urban water supply References
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The present bibliography is a continuation of and a complement to those published in the Urban History Yearbook 1974-91 and Urban History from 1992. The arrangement and format closely follows that of pre- . VIII Shaping the urban environment Town planning (and environmental control) Urban renewal IX Urban culture Urban renewal Urban culture .
PART I : WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1-1. General 1-2. Need to protect water supplies 1-3. Water supply schemes 1-4. Project drawings 1-5. Report of water supply scheme/project 1-6. Importance of water supply project 1-7. Layout of water supply project QUESTIONS 1 Chapter 2 QUANTITY OF WATER 2-1. Data to be collected 2-2 .
of urban water supply catchments to ensure urban water security have become the essential requirements for the rapid sustainable development of urban China. The Nature Conservancy is focused on addressing the challenges of China's urban water catchments, including management of non-point pollution through nature-based solutions.
he Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation had constituted an expert committee in February 2001 for the preparation of Manual on Operation and Maintenance of urban water supply systems to fulfill the long time demand of the field engineers working in the urban water supply and sanitation sector. The composition of the Committee .
OUTLINE OF THE PRESENTATION 1) Introducing UPGro 2) Water security and ground water resources Concept of water security Role of groundwater in water security 3) Self-supply boom –current trends in use of ground water Urban growth unprecedented and growth of water demand Typical “supply” response Africa regional evolution of type of supply
Renaissance Cities/Towns Baroque Cities/Towns Post Industrial Cities/Towns Modern Period 3 Elements of Urban Design and Basic Design Elements of Urban Design Urban Morphology Urban Form Urban Mass Urban/Public Spaces Townscape Public Art Some Basic Urban Design Principles and Techniques. Unit-2 4.
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