Main Sources Of Air Pollution In Jakarta - Vital Strategies

Main Sourcesof AirPollution inJakartaAcknowledgementsThe receptor-based source apportionment study was made possible with financialsupport from Bloomberg Philanthropies and Climate Works Foundation to supplementan ongoing project of Bandung Institute of Technology funded by the Toyota Clean AirProject (TCAP).For further details, visit t.

Main Sources of Air Pollutionin JakartaPolicy BriefIndonesia has the highest number of premature deaths(more than 50,000) associated with air pollution inSoutheast Asia in 2017.1 With annual average PM2.5 concentrations in Jakarta routinely four to five times higher thanWorld Health Organization (WHO) health-based Air QualityGuidelines,2 the capital city observed the largest number ofdeaths (nearly 36) per 100,000 attributed to ambient PM2.5pollution, compared to 20 per 100,000 nationwide. Anestimated 5.5 million cases of air pollution-related illnesswere reported in 2010 (nearly 11 cases per minute) in Jakarta,costing an equivalent of IDR 60.8 trillion in 2020 in directmedical expenses.3Effective air quality management for Greater Jakartarequires knowing the leading sources of pollution in the city.Information on what share of the air pollution problem isattributable to different sources (e.g., traffic) allowseffective clean air actions to be prioritized.6 In general, thisinvolves two complementary approaches: the sourcebased approach using emissions inventories to model airpollution levels, and the receptor-based approach using airfilter samples to chemically characterize the sources thatcontribute to air pollution.Reliable and recent information on leading sources of airpollution in Jakarta is scarce. Over the past decade, twoad-hoc air pollution emissions inventories were developedby civil society and academia, in 2012 and 2015, respectively,7,8and no receptor-based source apportionment data areavailable. To address this major evidence gap, Vital Strategiesworked with the Bandung Institute of Technology to expandan ongoing receptor-based source apportionment studyto identify the leading sources of ambient PM2.5 levels inand around Jakarta. The findings will inform policymakerson the leading sources of air pollution in the city, and providea check on findings from earlier emissions inventory results.Particulate matter with adiameter of 2.5 microns orless (PM2.5) poses the greatestrisk to health. PM2.5 causesand worsens chronic heartdisease, lung disease, diabetesand cancer, and also impactschild health through adversebirth outcomes, slowinglung growth and causingpneumonia and stunting.4,5References1234567892State of Global Air. Explore the Data. https://www.stateofglobalair.org/data/#/air/plot. Published2019. Accessed September 5, 2019.The United States Department of State. AirNow.https://airnow.gov/index.cfm?action airnow.global summary. Accessed January 8, 2019.Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia.Cost Benefit Analysis for Fuel Qualtiy and FuelEconomy Initiative in Indonesia.; 2010.World Health Organization. WHO Air QualityGuidelines for Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide. Global Update2005, Summary of Risk Assessment. Geneva,Switzerland; 2006.Fenske N, Burns J, Hothorn T, Rehfuess EA. Understanding child stunting in India: A comprehensiveanalysis of socio-economic, nutritional and environmental determinants using additive quantileregression. PLoS One. 2013;8(11). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078692Vital Strategies. Accelerating City Progress onClean Air - Innovation and Action Guide. NewYork, NY; 2020. /AcceleratingCityProgressCleanAir.pdf.Lestari P. Inventarisasi Emisi PM2.5, CO, NOx, SO2,BC, Dan GHG Di Jakarta.; 2019.Breathe Easy J. Factsheet 3: Emission -Inventory.pdf. Published 2016.Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resource. CoalConsumption for Power Plants Continues toIncrease. gkat.

Main Sources of Air Pollution in JakartaTheApproachWherePM2.5 was collected on filters at three air quality monitoringsites across the city: Gelora Bung Karno (GBK), KebonJeruk (KJ) and Lubang Buaya (LB). These sites wereselected based on land use features, weather and otherconsiderations to capture potential variation in air pollution sources.WhenOne wet season (October 2018–March 2019) and one dryseason (July–September 2019).How3Policy BriefPM2.5 were collected on filters and analyzed for theirchemical composition. Two statistical methods (receptormodels) were used to estimate the source contribution toambient PM2.5 concentrations, and results were comparedto increase confidence in the findings.

Main Sources of Air Pollution in JakartaFindingsMost average daily PM2.5 levels in Jakarta across the city andseasons exceed the WHO health-based Air QualityGuideline (see Figure 1).Daily pollution levels are significantly higher in the dryseason than the wet season.The variation in pollution levels in different areas of the citywas greater in the wet season than during the dry season.Figure 1Average daily PM2.5 concentration in Jakarta80Concentration (ug/m3)Air Pollution Levels in Jakarta70Indonesia PM2.5 24-hr standard60585020106349403058WHO PM2.5 24-hr guideline21310Wet SeasonGBKKJDry SeasonLBVehicle exhaust, coal combustion, open burning, construction, road dust, and resuspended soil particles are the mainsources of air pollution in Jakarta. Gasoline and diesel vehicles contributed to 32%–57% ofPM2.5 levels, though it is unclear how much of these camefrom on-road vehicles and how much from off-roademissions (e.g., logistic vehicles).Primary aerosols occur as a result of directemissions from an air pollution source. Seasalts, a natural marine emission, are formeddue to wind action at the ocean surface.Secondary aerosols (e.g., ammoniumnitrate or sulfate) are formed when precursorgaseous pollutants, such as sulfur oxidesand nitrogen oxides, undergo chemicalreactions within the atmosphere.4Policy Brief Non-vehicular primary sources accounted for 17%–46% ofambient polluted air across sampling sites and seasons,including contribution from anthropogenic sources suchas: coal combustion, open burning, construction(non-combustion) activities and road dust; and naturalsources such as: soil and sea salt. Secondary inorganic aerosol accounted for 1%–16%. The contributions of leading sources to outdoor PM2.5concentration varied across seasons and by location.This may be explained by variation in local activities, orregional sources of pollution, depending on weatherconditions (e.g., upwind emissions from adjacent cities).

Main Sources of Air Pollution in JakartaDifferences in pollution sources by season were observed.Figure 2aFigure 2bSource contribution (%) to PM2.5 concentrations in JakartaNon-vehicular primary source contribution (%) to PM2.5concentrations in %41%20%34%34%42%46%0%GBKKJLBGBKKJLBDry SeasonWet dentifiedSecondary aerosolsVehicle exhaustNon-vehicular primary sourcesMajor sourcesof pollution in wet 10%Wet Season18%9%KJDry SeasonPaved road dustConstructionSoil*Open burningSea saltCoal combustion*Natural sourcesMajor sourcesof pollution in dry seasonVehicle exhaust 32–41% The highestVehicle exhaust 42%–57% acrossvehicular emissions were observed at the citycenter (GBK).the cityCoal combustion 14% in the east (LB)Construction activities 13% in theLBOpen burning: 9% in the east (LB)Paved road dust: 9% in the westof the city (KJ)west of the city (KJ).Open burning of biomass or other fuels:11% in the outskirts of the city (KJ and LB).Paved road dust: 1%–6% was observedSea salt 19%–22%Resuspended soil particles10%–18% were observed across the city, mostevidently in the east (LB), due to dry conditions.in the center (GBK) and east of the city (LB).Secondary aerosol (6%–16%) andsea salt (1%–10%) were found across the city.Secondary aerosol: 1%–7%This study was conducted within the Jakarta city boundary. While the results cannot directlydifferentiate contributions from local and regional emissions, existing knowledge on emissionactivities and locations of point- and area-sources around the sampling sites and neighbourhoodarea (e.g., Greater Jakarta) may shed light on the potential contributing emission sources. Forinstance, biomass burning activities in paddy fields west of Kebon Jeruk may explain the sourcecontribution from open burning in that site; similarly, coal-fired power plants operating outside ofthe city boundary, and to a lesser extent, manufacturing industries in Jakarta, may contribute tosource contribution from coal combustion at Lubang Buaya. Secondary aerosols represent mainlylong-range, transboundary contribution to ambient PM2.5 pollution.5Policy Brief

Main Sources of Air Pollution in JakartaPolicyRecommendationsTo rapidly improve air quality in Jakarta,reduce the burden of air pollution on healthand save lives, Vital Strategies recommendsimplementing the following proven solutions totackle the emissions sources identified throughthis source apportionment study:LimitVehicle ExhaustReduce vehicular emissions through comprehensiveand synergistic vehicle pollution control strategiesthat target: fuel quality and emissions control standards, compulsory emissions testing of all vehicles,alternative technologies (e.g., hybrid or electricvehicles), and road maintenance. In addition, continuing and accelerating the expansion of integratedpublic transit systems in Jakarta can reduce thedependence on private vehicles and subsequentlyreduce vehicle emissions. Modernizing emissionsrequirements for vehicles to the latest standardsalong with mandatory and incentivized retirement ofolder vehicles has proven effective in many cities.EnforceOpen Burning BansEnforce the ban on open burning of biomass (LocalGovernment Regulation No 2/2005). To prevent trashburning, introduce interventions to improve solidwaste collection, management and recycling, andconduct regular clean-up and awareness campaigns.Open burning of other fuels or materials may alsocontribute to ambient air pollution, and should beincluded in the ban6Policy BriefReduceCoal CombustionAbout 80% of coal consumed in 2018 was used togenerate electricity9, with the remaining used by theindustrial sector. The impact of coal combustion on airquality in Jakarta can already be detected, despite thefact that none of the coal-fired power plants arewithin the city limits. Given that Indonesia plans toconstruct more coal-fired power plants within 100kilometers of Jakarta, their contribution to ambientPM2.5 pollution in Jakarta will increase over time.To reduce emissions from coal combustion in the nearterm, install scrubber and filter systems and cleanerproduction technologies, and introduce stringentemissions standards for coal-fired power plants andindustries. To promote compliance, it is critical toenforce standards through regular inspection schedules to monitor and control air pollution emissionslevels. Mandatory installation of continuous emissionsmonitoring systems for all power plants and industrieswill also provide actionable data for enforcement andenable plants to improve their efficiency and compliance. For longer-term pollution control measures, thecity should consider switching to cleaner fuel (e.g,natural gas), and expanding to increasingly affordablesolar, wind and other zero-emissions options.Control Construction Dust, andPaved Road Dust, and Exposed SoilMinimize resuspension of dust and soil particles by thewind by using abatement measures such as: wateringall exposed surfaces (e.g., construction sites, road andsoil surfaces); applying dust suppressant/dust binders(e.g., chemical reagents) to maintain a wet surface;covering vehicles transporting soil/sand; and plantingappropriate vegetation to maintain soil moisture.

regional sources of pollution, depending on weather conditions (e.g., upwind emissions from adjacent cities). Vehicle exhaust, coal combustion, open burning, construc-tion, road dust, and resuspended soil particles are the main sources of air pollution in Jakarta. Main Sources of Air Pollution in Jakarta Policy Brief Concentration (ug/m3) Wet .