New General Mathematics - Pearson Africa
New GeneralMathematicsFOR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLSTEACHER’S GUIDE
New GeneralMathematicsfor Secondary Senior Schools 1H. Otto9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 12015/08/02 2:06 PM
Pearson Education LimitedEdinburgh GateHarlowEssex CM20 2JEEnglandand Associated Companies throughout the world Pearson PLCAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior permission of the publishers.First published in 2015ISBN 9781292119748Cover design by Mark StandleyTypesetting byAuthor: Helena OttoAcknowledgementsThe Publisher would like to thank the following for the use of copyrighted images in this publication:Cover image: Science Photo Library Ltd; Shutterstock.comIt is illegal to photocopy any page of this book without the written permission of the copyright holder.Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders. In the event of unintentional omissionsor errors, any information that would enable the publisher to make the proper arrangements will beappreciated.9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 22015/08/02 2:06 PM
ContentsReview of Junior Secondary School courseChapter 1: Numerical processes 1: Indices and logarithmsChapter 2: Geometry 1: Formal geometry: Triangles and polygonsChapter 3: Numerical processes 2: Fractions, decimals, percentages and number basesChapter 4: Algebraic processes 1: Simplification and substitutionChapter 5: Sets 1Chapter 6: Algebraic processes 2: Equations and formulaeChapter 7: Algebraic processes 3: Linear and quadratic graphsChapter 8: Sets 2: Practical applicationsChapter 9: Logical reasoning: Simple and compound statementsChapter 10: Algebraic processes 4: Quadratic equationsChapter 11: Trigonometry 1: Solving right-angled trianglesChapter 12: Mensuration 1: Plane shapesChapter 13: Numerical processes 3: Ratio, rate and proportionChapter 14: Statistics: Data presentationChapter 15: Mensuration 2: Solid shapesChapter 16: Geometry 2: Constructions and lociChapter 17: Trigonometry 2: Angles between 0 and 360 Chapter 18: Algebraic processes 5: VariationChapter 19: Numerical processes 4: Tax and monetary exchangeChapter 20: Numerical processes 5: Modular arithmetic9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 2 2:06 PM
Review of Junior Secondary School course1. Learning objectives1.2.4.5.Number and numerationAlgebraic processesGeometry and mensurationStatistics and probability2. Teaching and learning materialsTeachers should have the Mathematics textbook ofthe Junior Secondary School Course and Book 1 ofthe Senior Secondary School Course.Students should have:1. Book 12. An Exercise book3. Graph paper4. A scientific calculator, if possible.3. Glossary of termsAlgebraic expression A mathematical phrase thatcan contains ordinary numbers, variables (suchas x or y) and operators (such as add, subtract,multiply, and divide). For example, 3x2y – 3y2 4.Algebraic sentence is another word for analgebraic equation where two algebraicexpressions are equal to each other.Angle A measure of rotation or turning and we usea protractor to measure the size of an angle.Angle of depression The angle through which theeyes must look downward from the horizontal tosee a point below.Angle of elevation The angle through which theeyes must look upward from the horizontal to seea point above.Bimodal means that the data has two modes.Cartesian plane A coordinate system thatspecifies each point in a plane uniquely by apair of numerical coordinates, which are theperpendicular distances of the point fromtwo fixed perpendicular directed lines or axes,measured in the same unit of length. The wordCartesian comes from the inventor of this planenamely René Descartes, a French mathematician.Coefficient a numerical or constant or quantity 0placed before and multiplying the variable in analgebraic expression (for example, 4 in 4xy).Common fraction (also called a vulgar fractionor simple fraction) Any number written as baivwhere a and b are both whole numbers andwhere a b.Coordinates of point A, for example, (1, 2)gives its position on a Cartesian plane. Thefirst coordinate (x-coordinate) always givesthe distance along the x-axis and the secondcoordinate (y-coordinate) gives the distancealong the y-axis.Data Distinct pieces of information that can existin a variety of forms, such as numbers. Strictlyspeaking, data is the plural of datum, a singlepiece of information. In practice, however,people use data as both the singular and pluralform of the word.Decimal place values A positional system ofnotation in which the position of a numberwith respect to the decimal point determines itsvalue. In the decimal (base 10) system, the valueof each digit is based on the number 10. Eachposition in a decimal number has a value that isa power of 10.Denominator The part of the fraction that iswritten below the line. The 4 in 34 , for example,is the denominator of the fraction. It also tellsyou what kind of fraction it is. In this case, thekind of fraction is quarters.Directed numbers Positive and negative numbersare called directed numbers and are shown ona number line. These numbers have a certaindirection with respect to zero. If a number is positive, it is on the right-handside of 0 on the number line. If a number is negative, it is on the left-handside of the 0 on the number line.Direct proportion The relationship betweenquantities of which the ratio remains constant.If a and b are directly proportional,then ba a constant value (for example, k).Direct variation Two quantities a and b varydirectly if, when a changes, then b changes in thesame ratio. That means that: If a doubles in value, b will also double invalue. If a increases by a factor of 3, then b will alsoincrease by a factor of 3.Edge A line segment that joins two vertices of asolid.Review of Junior Secondary School course9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 42015/08/02 2:06 PM
Elimination is the process of solving a systemof simultaneous equations by using varioustechniques to successively remove the variables.Equivalent fractions Fractions that are multiples3 2 3 3 of each other, for example, 34 4 2 4 3and so on.Expansion of an algebraic expression means thatbrackets are removed by multiplicationFaces of a solid A flat (planar) surface that formspart of the boundary of the solid object; a threedimensional solid bounded exclusively by flatfaces is a polyhedron.Factorisation of an algebraic expression meansthat we write an algebraic expression as theproduct of its factors.Graphical method used to solve simultaneouslinear equations means that the graphs of theequations are drawn. The solution is where thetwo graphs intersect (cut) each other.Highest Common Factor (HCF) of a set ofnumbers is the highest factor that all thosenumbers have in common or the highest numberthat can divide into all the numbers in the set.The HCF of 18, 24 and 30, for example, is 6.Inverse proportion The relationship between twovariables in which their product is a constant.When one variable increases, the other decreasesin proportion so that the product is unchanged.If b is inversely proportional to a, the equation isin the form b ka (where k is a constant).Inverse variation: Two quantities a and b varyinversely if, when a changes, then b changes bythe same ratio inversely. That means that: If a doubles, then b halves in value. If a increases by a factor of 3, then b decreasesby a factor of 13 .Joint variation of three quantities x, y and zmeans that x and y are directly proportional, forexample, and x and z are inversely proportional,yyfor example. So x z or x k z, where k is aconstant.Like terms contain identical letter symbols withthe same exponents. For example, –3x2y3 and5x2y3 are like terms but 3x2y3 and 3xy are notlike terms. They are unlike terms.Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of a set ofnumbers is the smallest multiple that a setof numbers have in common or the smallestnumber into which all the numbers of the set candivide without leaving a remainder. The LCM of18, 24 and 30, for example, is 360.Median The median is a measure of centraltendency. To find the median, we arrange thedata from the smallest to largest value. If there is an odd number of data, the medianis the middle value. If there is an even number of data, the medianis the average of the two middle data points.Mode The value (data point) that occurs the mostin a set of values (data) or is the data point withthe largest frequency.Multiple The multiple of a certain number is thatnumber multiplied by any other whole number.Multiples of 3, for example, are 6, 9, 12, 15, andso on.Net A plane shape that can be folded to make thesolid.Numerator The part of the fraction that is writtenabove the line. The 3 in 38 , for example, is thenumerator of the fraction. It also tells how manyof that kind of fraction you have. In this case,you have 3 of them (eighths)Origin is where the x-axis and the y-axis intersectand is the point (0, 0).Orthogonal projection A system of makingengineering drawings showing several differentviews (for example, its plan and elevations) of anobject at right angles to each other on a singledrawing.Parallel projection Lines that are parallel in realityare also parallel on the drawingPictogram (or pictograph) Represents thefrequency of data as pictures or symbols. Eachpicture or symbol may represent one or moreunits of the data.Pie chart A circular chart divided into sectors,where each sector shows the relative size of eachvalue. In a pie chart, the angle of the each sectoris in the same ratio as the quantity the sectorrepresents.Place value Numbers are represented by anordered sequence of digits where both thedigit and its place value have to be known todetermine its value. The 3 in 36, for example,indicates 3 tens and 6 is the number of units.Rational numbers are all the numbers which canbe written as ba , where a ℤ (integers), b ℤ(integers) and b 0.Review of Junior Secondary School course9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 5v2015/08/02 2:06 PM
Reciprocal or multiplicative inverse, is simplyone of a pair of numbers that, when multipliedtogether, will give an answer of 1. If you havea fraction and want to find the reciprocal, youswop the numerator and the denominator to getthe reciprocal of that specific fraction. To findthe reciprocal of a whole number, just turn itinto a fraction in which the original number isthe denominator and the numerator is 1.Satisfy an equation, means that there is a certainvalue(s) that will make the equation true. Inthe equation 4x 3 –9, x –3 satisfies theequation because 4(–3) 3 –9.Simplify means that you are writing an algebraicexpression in a form that is easier to use if youwant to do something else with the expression.If you, for example, want to work out the valueof an algebraic expression 3x 2 – 2x – 4x2 5x, ifx –2, you would not substitute the value of x inthe expression before you have not written it in asimpler form as –x 2 3x.Simultaneous linear equations are equations thatyou solve by finding the solution that will makethem simultaneously true. In 2x – 5y 16 andx 4y –5, x 3 and y –2 satisfy bothequations simultaneously.SI units The international system of units ofexpressing the magnitudes or quantities ofimportant natural phenomena such as length inmetres, mass in kilograms and so on.Terms in an algebraic expression are numbers andvariables which are separated by or – signs.Variable In algebra, variables are represented byletter symbols and are called variables becausethe values represented by the letter symbols mayvary or change and therefore are not constant.Vertex (plural vertices) A point where two ormore edges meet.x-axis The horizontal axis on a Cartesian plane.y-axis The vertical axis on a Cartesian plane.viTeaching notesYou should be aware of what your class knowsabout the work of previous years. It would be goodif you could analyse their answer papers of theprevious end of year examination to find out wherethey lack the necessary knowledge and ability inprevious work. You can then analyse their answersto find out where they experience difficulties withthe work and then use this chapter to concentrateon those areas.A good idea could also be that you review previouswork by means of the summary given in eachsection. Then you let the students do Review test1 of that section and you discuss the answers whenthey finished it. You then let the students writeReview test 2 as a test, and you let them mark itunder your supervision.Review of Junior Secondary School course9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 62015/08/02 2:06 PM
Chapter 1Numerical processes 1: Indices andlogarithmsLearning objectivesBy the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:1. Recall and use the laws of indices (multiplication, division, zero, reciprocal).2. Simplify expressions that contain products of indices and fractional indices.3. Solve simple equations containing indices.4. Express and interpret numbers in standard form.5. Find the logarithms and antilogarithms of numbers greater than 1.6. Use logarithms to solve problems.Teaching and learning materialsStudents: Copy of textbook with logarithm andantilogarithm tables (pp. 245 and 246), exercisebook and writing materials.Teacher: Index and logarithm charts, graphchalkboard; books of four figure tables (as used inpublic examinations) and a copy of the textbook, anoverhead projector (if available), transparencies of therelevant tables and transparencies of graph paper.Teaching notesLaws of indices When revising the first four laws given on p. 15,it is very important that you illustrate each onewith a numerical example as shown in Example 1. You could also explain the negative exponent likethis:23 23 5 2 25 022Therefore, to write numbers with positiveindices, we write the power of the base with anegative exponent, on the opposite side of thex3x 31 or 13 .division line for example: 311xx x 0 1, where x 0: Students may ask why x isnot equal to 0. You can explain it as follows.0defined. Then you can explain why division by0 is not defined like this:8– Say we take 4. This is because 2 4 8.20Also 2 0, because 2 0 0.8– Now, if we take any number, then ‘that0number’ 0 must be equal to 8.– That, however, is impossible, because thereis no number that we can multiply by 0 thatwill give 8. So, division by zero is not defined.1 In this book, 9 2 9 is given as 3. This can beexplained as follows:If we draw the graph of f (x) x 2, we see thatthe y-values are found by squaring all thex-values. We can show this diagrammaticallyby means of a flow diagram: 2Usually when we divide, we subtract theexponents of the equal bases where the biggest231 1 . From this we canexponent is:25 25 3 25212deduce that 2 2 or 25 2 23.2222But if we forget that we always subtractexponents of equal bases where the biggestexponent is, the sum can be done like this:251 22 5 2 3. So, 23 .2 3If x 0, we may have that x 0 resulted from0m0m . Here we divided by 0 which is notx x 2 y In the flow diagram:– The x-values are the input values or x is theindependent variable.– The y-values are the output values and y isthe dependent variable, because its valuesdepend on the values of x.Now, if we invert this operation, it meansthat we make the y-values the input valuesand it becomes the independent variable,x. Instead of squaring the x-values, we nowfind their square roots. We can show thisdiagrammatically by means of a flow diagram:x x yChapter 1: Numerical processes 1: Indices and logarithms9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 112015/08/02 2:06 PM
This is called the inverse of f, and the y-valuesare found by taking the square root of x. Wesay that f 1(x) x. Although f is a function,its inverse is not a function.In a function, the value of each independentvariable is associated with only one value ofthe dependent variable and this is not the casewith f 1. There each x-value is mapped ontothe two y-values.All this is illustrated in the graph below.25(For the function ( f ), x 0, so, for itsinverse, y 0. We, therefore, take thepositive square root of x and x 0, becauseyou cannot get the square root of a negativenumber.)The graph shows that we now only have thepositive square root for any number. On thegraph of f, for example, you can see that32 9; and on the graph of f 1, you can see1that 9 9 2 3.– y252020ƒ(x) x² x 0ƒ(x) x²15151010ƒ–1(x) x5x 05x–55101520–525 2It is also reasoned that any number has twosquare roots. This is because if we want to findthe square root of a number, we are lookingfor that unique number that, if multiplied byitself, will give the original number.So, if, for example, we want to find the square1root of 16 or per definition 16 2 , we say thatthe answer is 4 or 4, because (4) (4) 16and ( 4) ( 4) 16.– There is, however, another viewpoint, whereyou can define f in such a way that itsinverse is also a function:– Let us say that f (x) x 2, where x 0. Then,if we invert the operation, we again get theinverse of f, which now also is a function:(swop x and y)y2 x 1y f (x) x, x 0(find the square root of both sides of theequation)10152025–5Let us say that f (x) x 2, where x 0. Then,if we invert the operation again, we againget the inverse of f, which now also is afunction:y 2 x (swop x and y)y f 1(x) x, x 0(find the square root of both sides of theequation)– (For the function (f ), x 0, so, for itsinverse, y 0. We, therefore, take thenegative square root of x and x 0, becauseyou cannot get the square root of a negativenumber.)The graph shows that we now only havethe negative square root for any number.On the graph of f, for example, you can seethat ( 3)2 9; and on the graph of f 1,––5 5 1you can see that 9 9 2 3.Chapter 1: Numerical processes 1: Indices and logarithms9781292119748 ngm mat fm1 tg eng ng.indb 22015/08/02 2:06 PM
25 y Students tend to forget what the word logarithmreally means. Emphasise the following:In numbers: if 102.301 200, thenlog10 200 2.301.In words: log base 10 of 200 is the exponentto which 10 must be raised to give 200. Students tend to forget what antilog means. If,for example 102.301 200, the antilog means thatwe want to know what the answer of 102.301 is. Students tend to forget why they add logarithmsof numbers, if they multiply the numbers andwhy they subtract logarithms of numbers, if theydivide these numbers by each other. Emphasise that logarithms are exponents (of 10in this case) and that the first two exponentiallaws are:Law I: a x b y a x y. For example:a 3 a 4 (a a a) (a a a a) a a a a a a a a7Law II: a x a y a x y, where x y.For example:a 6 a a aa aa a a a 4 a 6 22 20 15105x–5510152025–5 1Many mathematicians, therefore, define x nx 0, where n is an evenas the n x , where1nnumber and x as the n x , where x 0, andn is an even number. So, the students regard1 116 2 16 4 and 16 2 16 4, forexample.They reason like this, because they want11x n (16 2 , for example) and n x ( 16, forexample) to stand for one number only11 Areas of difficulty and common mistakes Students do not understand the differencebetween, for example, ( 3)2 and 32.You can read ( 3)2, as negative 3 squared andit means ( 3) ( 3) 9.You can read 32, as the negative of 3 squaredand it means 3 3 9. and x n (16 2 , for example) and n x ( 16,for example) to also stand for one number only,but if x2 9, then x 3 or x 3. When students revise the standard form,emphasise that:If A 10n is the standard form then 1 A 10.If A does not satisfy this condition, thenumber is no
iv Review of Junior Secondary School course 1. Learning objectives 1. Number and numeration 2. Algebraic processes 4. Geometry and mensuration 5. Statistics and probability 2. Teaching and learning materials Teachers should have the Mathematics textbook of the Junior Secondary School Course and Book 1 of the Senior Secondary School Course .
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