Chapter 37: Health Considerations: The Cow Herd
BEEFChapter 37HealthConsiderations:The Cow HerdRuss DalySDSU Extension is an equal opportunity provider andemployer in accordance with the nondiscriminationpolicies of South Dakota State University, the SouthDakota Board of Regents and the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture.
Chapter 37:Health Considerations: The Cow HerdIntroductionKey PointsThe economic success of the cow-calf operation rises and falls withthe productivity of the cows in the herd. The productivity of anindividual cow depends on her becoming pregnant, carrying a calfto term, efficiently giving birth to and raising a healthy calf, andreturning to estrus to begin a new cycle. For all this to occur, thecow must be in optimal health. Setbacks due to infectious diseases orother health conditions adversely affect the cow’s ability to becomepregnant and to successfully raise her calf. Therefore, knowledge ofpreventive medicine programs, along with an understanding of thevarious health problems that can affect the cow, are critical for thecow-calf producer. This chapter will focus on the health of femalesreturning to the breeding herd after calving. Health of the mature cowis fundamental to herreproductive and maternalperformance, and therefore tothe productivity of the cowcalf enterprise. Maintenanceof health and prevention ofinfectious disease outbreaksin the cow herd are critical tooptimal herd performance. Cows can encounter infectiousreproductive diseases throughcontact with other animals orthe environment. A sound andsafe pre-breeding vaccinationprogram designed withveterinary input is importantto help protect the cow herdagainst these conditions. Pre-calving vaccinationsduring late gestation offer anopportunity to enhance thecow’s ability to produce highquality colostrum when shecalves. Cows should be closelyevaluated at pregnancy-testingtime for conditions that willinhibit their future productivity,including the next breedingseason.Specific Health Issues in the Cow HerdReproductive lossesNormally, cow-calf producers can expect minimal reproductivelosses (no greater than 2%) after the cow’s pregnancy has beenestablished 42 days. Many infectious and non-infectious conditionscan result in pregnancy loss after that, however. Non-infectiouscauses include certain toxins, such as exposure to pine needles orhigh nitrate levels in feed or water.Infection with certain viruses, bacteria, and protozoa can resultin pregnancy loss. Viral causes of abortion include Bovine ViralDiarrhea Virus (BVDV) and Infectious Bovine RhinotracheitisVirus (IBRV) infections. Both are commonly encountered in cattlepopulations. Infections with either virus can cause problems withthe estrus cycle, early embryonic death and late-term abortions. Inaddition, BVDV is associated with the birth of calves persistentlyinfected with BVDV and congenital birth defects.Bacterial abortions can result from bacteria passed from otheranimals or encountered in the environment. Leptospirosis iscaused by Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar hardjo type hardjobovis and Leptospira interrogans serovars hardjo, canicola, pomona,37-1extension.sdstate.edu 2020, South Dakota Board of Regents
grippotyphosa, and icterohemorrhagiae. Theseinfections can cause early embryonic death as wellas late-term abortions and weak calves. The mainsource of the hardjo-bovis serotype is cattle, whilethe other serotypes are encountered through contactwith wildlife species or contaminated environmentson pasture. The bacterial disease vibriosis (caused byCampylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis is transmittedduring breeding by infected bulls and can result infetal losses throughout gestation.A wide variety of other bacteria encountered throughthe feed or the environment are also implicatedin late-term abortions. These bacteria includeTruperella pyogenes, Bacillus spp., and Listeriamonocytogenes, among many others. Problems dueto these infections tend to be sporadic rather thanwidespread within a herd. Abortions due to fungalinfections (mycotic abortions) are not uncommon,and are typically sporadic as well.Protozoal abortion diseases include trichomoniasisand neosporosis. Trichomoniasis is caused bythe protozoal agent Tritrichomonas foetus, and istransmitted by bulls during the breeding season.Infection typically results in early embryonic deathand late returns to estrus, however abortions laterin gestation have also been observed. Neosporosis iscaused by a protozoal organism that is transmitted tocattle when they eat feed that has been contaminatedby feces from infected canines. The canines pickup the parasite when they ingest calf fetuses (orcleanings) that have been aborted due to Neospora.It is not normally necessary to seek a diagnosis forevery case of fetal loss, but once a herd approaches a1-2% level of reproductive loss, a veterinarian shouldbe consulted. Laboratory diagnosis of calf abortionsis not uniformly successful, in part due to the lagtime between infection and expulsion of the fetus.Diagnostic success is improved when tissues fromthe entire fetus and placenta are available and sentpromptly to the veterinary diagnostic laboratory.PinkeyeCows are not as commonly affected with pinkeyeas younger animals, but cases in cows still occurnonetheless. Pinkeye (infectious keratoconjunctivitis)is caused by the bacteria Moraxella bovis and otherrelated bacteria. Simple exposure to the bacteria isnot sufficient to induce disease: irritation throughdust, tall grass, flies, or sunlight is also necessary,and allows the bacteria a foothold to cause damageto the eye. Pinkeye usually begins as a small defectin the central cornea, with an increase in cloudinessand redness as the disease progresses. If not treated,damage in the form of corneal opacity (white eye) oreven rupture of the cornea may result in permanentblindness. Affected animals should be promptlytreated with appropriate antibiotics and may benefitfrom protective measures such as eye patches orsuturing of the eyelids. Commercial as well asfarm-specific vaccines are used to protect cattleagainst pinkeye; however their effectiveness is notdependable.Cancer eyeSquamous cell carcinoma of the eye is the mostcommon cancer condition of cattle. Older cowsand bulls, especially white-faced animals, are mostcommonly affected. In its early stages, cancer eyeusually manifests itself as a small, light-colored flatgrowth. These growths are most commonly foundnear the junction of the clear cornea with thewhite conjunctiva, but can be noted in the eyelidsand third eyelid as well. If caught at this stage,cryotherapy (freezing) may arrest the developmentof the cancer. Once the lesion has grown andinvaded other structures of the eye, surgical removalof the eye is indicated. Cows are not candidatesfor slaughter for the food supply once the cancerhas spread to surrounding tissues or has resulted indestruction of the eye.FootrotFootrot describes the condition in which damagedskin between the toes has been invaded and damagedby Fusobacterium nodosum and other bacteria. Theresult is a painful, foul-smelling sore accompanied bylameness and symmetrical swelling above the hoof.The bacteria implicated in footrot are commonlyfound in cattle environments. In order for thesegerms to gain access to the underlying tissue, aninjury (such as a puncture or abrasion) or continualexposure to wet conditions needs to occur. Prompttreatment with appropriate antibiotics is necessary tokeep the infection from invading deeper tissues andcausing long-term damage and lameness.37-2extension.sdstate.edu 2020, South Dakota Board of Regents
AnthraxAnthrax is a bacterial disease caused by the sporeforming bacteria Bacillus anthracis. These spores areregularly encountered in soils and on vegetation incertain areas of South Dakota. Once a cow ingeststhe spores, they germinate inside the gut andproduce toxins that are rapidly lethal for the animal.The clinical signs of anthrax progress so rapidly thataffected animals are usually simply found dead onpasture. Cows and bulls are more likely than calvesto be affected with anthrax. Clinical disease typicallyoccurs during the hot summer months. Whilecertain areas of South Dakota have a known historyof anthrax, the disease has occurred in variouslocations over the years. Therefore it is difficult todesignate any geographic area as “safe” from year toyear.Hardware DiseaseCows can inadvertently ingest a variety of foreignobjects while feeding. If these objects are sharp,they can pierce the reticulum (second stomach) ofthe cow, resulting in local infection that can leadto an infected abdominal cavity (peritonitis) andinfection around the heart (pericarditis) that mayresult in death (“hardware disease”). Signs in cowsinclude pain in the lower chest area, low-grade fever,and reluctance to move or eat. Treatment consistsof appropriate antibiotics and administration of arumen magnet to help prevent the foreign objectfrom moving and causing further damage. Cows areexposed to many potential hardware-causing objects.One documented source is wires emerging fromworn-out tractor tires used as feeders. Producersshould carefully inspect these feeders for wear,as well as the pasture or lot for other sources ofhardware.Vaginal ProlapseProlapse of the vaginal tissue typically occurs latein gestation as the enlarging fetus contributes toan increase in abdominal pressure, especially incows with large, perpetually full rumens. Once thevaginal tissue is exposed to the outside environment,irritation and swelling result. The cow pushes inresponse to the irritation, setting up a vicious cycleof tissue irritation and straining. In some cases,excessive straining also results in prolapse of therectum.Successful calving is not possible through theprolapsed tissue, so while a vaginal prolapse is nota dire emergency, it should be addressed promptly.In mild cases where a small amount of vaginal tissueprotrudes only when the cow lays down, it may bemanaged by isolating the cow and restricting hayintake. In cases where the prolapse remains out, itmust be replaced and secured until calving. Thisinvolves a veterinarian giving the cow an epiduralanesthetic and replacing the prolapse. The prolapseis then secured through a purse-string suture, aretaining “button”, or other method. If suturesare placed that occlude the vaginal canal, the cowmust be closely observed and the sutures removedimmediately before calving. Cows with vaginalprolapses are no more likely than other cows toprolapse their uterus following calving.Once a cow has a problem with a vaginal prolapse,the condition will occur more readily prior to allsubsequent calvings. For this reason, and because ofthe heritability of this condition, the cow should beculled from the herd before the next breeding season.Cow Management Considerations PriorTo BreedingVaccinationA number of infectious diseases can adversely affectreproduction in beef cattle. Infectious reproductivediseases can manifest themselves throughout thereproductive cycle, from disruptions of the estruscycle to late-term abortions to the birth of stillbornand weak calves. Vaccines are available against someof these infectious agents. When used properly, thesevaccines boost the immune system of the cow so thatthe effects of these germs, if encountered, will beminimized.Reproductive vaccines against the viruses BVDV andIBRV are commonly used in cow-calf operations.Both modified-live virus (MLV) and killed vaccinesare available against these common viruses.Killed bacterins are available against the non-hostadapted Leptospira serovars hardjo, canicola, pomona,grippotyphosa, and icterohemorrhagiae (“5-waylepto” vaccines). Bacterins are also available forthe host-adapted serovar hardjo-bovis, either as aseparate vaccine or in combination with the otherserovars. Leptospirosis vaccines are often marketed in37-3extension.sdstate.edu 2020, South Dakota Board of Regents
combination with vibriosis (“Lepto-vibrio” vaccines).The widespread use of vaccines against vibriosisis perhaps a reason why vibriosis is a relativelyinfrequent cause of reproductive failure in beef herdstoday.Killed vaccines are available for trichomoniasis. Theyare not sufficiently effective in preventing infectionin cows, but have been demonstrated to improvepregnancy rates in herds that are already infected.Trichomoniasis vaccine is not a substitute formeasures to prevent introduction into the herd or toeliminate it if present in the herd.Many different combinations of the above vaccinesare marketed, in MLV and killed forms. Veterinaryguidance should be sought when making decisionsabout products and timing, so that a programspecific to the operation’s management and diseasethreats can be crafted.Because of the potential effects these pathogenshave on early pregnancies, cows should receivereproductive vaccinations before the breedingseason. The exact timing of the pre-breeding vaccinesshould be guided by the product’s label directions.In general, if cows have not been previouslyvaccinated with the specific product, the initial doseof vaccine should be given no less than 4 weeksprior to breeding, with a booster dose given twoto four weeks later. In the case of newly-purchasedcows without a credible vaccine history, specialcare should be taken to avoid giving modified-livevaccines too close to breeding. In animals that havenever been previously vaccinated, the IBRV portionof modified-live vaccines may disrupt the estrus cycleif given too close to breeding.Cow Management Considerations AtSummer Pasture TurnoutVaccinationsIn addition to pre-breeding vaccinations previouslydescribed, in many areas of South Dakota cowsshould be vaccinated for anthrax prior to turnout onsummer pasture. One dose of vaccine is consideredprotective through the grazing season. Vaccinesto combat pinkeye and footrot are also available.Pinkeye vaccines are considered very strain-specific;therefore products containing multiple strains ofbacteria are preferred over single strain vaccines.Still, vaccination failures are not uncommon andquestions about efficacy remain. Footrot vaccinescontain antigens against Fusobacterium necrophorum,one of the bacteria implicated in footrot in cattle.Producers are best advised to seek information fromtheir veterinarian whether these vaccines would beof benefit to cows going to summer pasture for aparticular operation.If multiple vaccines are used simultaneously in cows,attention should be paid to the number of vaccinesagainst gram-negative bacteria. It is advised thatno more than two of these vaccines be given to ananimal at one processing. These vaccines includethose against leptospirosis, vibriosis, pinkeye, andfootrot.Internal Parasite ControlInternal parasites such as the stomach wormsOstertagia, Haemonchus, and Trichostrongylus arecommonly encountered on pastures. These parasiteshave the ability to overwinter on pastures andbecome sources of infestation for cows and calvesupon turnout. When cows and calves encounter theemerging overwintered larval forms of the parasites,they multiply within the animal, adversely affectingappetite and performance while serving as a sourcefor pasture contamination. Exposure to parasitelarvae may be diminished if cattle are turned out topasture after the overwintering juvenile worms havesuccumbed to summer conditions (late June or Julyin the Northern Plains). Alternatively, cattle maybe treated with a deworming product that protectsthem from infection through this period, or delayingtreatment until several weeks after turnout.Increasingly, concerns about anthelmintic resistanceof cattle stomach worms have been raised. It maybecome advisable on a long-term basis to leave cows(but not calves) untreated for internal parasites toencourage the establishment of a refugia (populationof parasites that have not been exposed todeworming medications and that have not developedresistance) on pasture.Fly ControlHorn flies and face flies can be significant sourcesof irritation and decreased production for cows onpasture, as well as a vector for disease conditionssuch as pinkeye. There are several strategies for37-4extension.sdstate.edu 2020, South Dakota Board of Regents
controlling flies in pasture cattle, with highly variableeffectiveness. Many times multiple interventions arerequired for effective control.concern. Productivity of the cow (ie, calf weaningweight) should also receive consideration as cowswith various conditions are evaluated.Insecticide fly tags are used to help control face fliesin cows. There are several different active insecticideingredients available in fly tag form, and some tagscombine chemical classes. Which fly tag to use in agiven year will depend on product availability andmay be governed by products used in years past, soconsultation with a veterinarian prior to applying flytags is recommended.It’s at pregnancy-testing time that cows shouldbe marked for further treatment or evaluation ofpotentially treatable conditions such as abnormalhoof growth, lump jaw, or early indications ofcancer eye. These conditions should be evaluatedby a veterinarian and a prognosis for successfulcontinuation in the breeding herd should be made.Pour-on insecticide products are widely available butlack residual effectiveness and need to be reappliedat frequent intervals (weekly or biweekly). Backrubbers and dust bags that contain insecticide canbe placed in the areas where cattle congregate.Periodic spraying or fogging of cattle on pasture withinsecticide provides animals some relief in certainsituations. Mineral formulations that include insectgrowth regulator compounds can also be fed. Thesefeed-through products are deposited in the cow’smanure, where they have larvacidal activity.Cow Management ConsiderationsFollowing The Breeding SeasonCattle producers are encouraged to employ setbreeding seasons after which the bulls are pulledand cows are pregnancy tested. In most cases itis preferable to wait at least 40-45 days followingthe last possible breeding date before pregnancytesting, in order for late pregnancies to be accuratelydetected. If ultrasound is utilized to detectpregnancy, that waiting period could be as short as30 days.Cows not bred within the set breeding season shouldbe marked for culling from the herd. At pregnancytesting time, cows should also be evaluated for otherconditions that will affect their future productivity.These conditions include, but are not limited to:udder conformation, eye problems, and chroniclameness or other musculoskeletal conditionsaffecting mobility. Older cows should have theirteeth examined at this time. Cows missing all(“gummers”) or some (“broken mouth”) of theirteeth should be carefully evaluated for their futureinclusion in the breeding herd, as eventually theirinability to maintain body condition will become aSpring-calving cows coming off pasture in the fallshould be treated with an internal parasiticideproduct that will eliminate any stomach worms orother parasites they picked up on pasture. It’s alsoat this time that many producers will apply licecontrolling pour-ons. Applications of these productsin early fall may not provide protection from liceinfestation through the winter. Small numbers oflice are typically present on cattle at this time, butthey are in a dormant stage, largely hidden under thelegs or in the flanks. Even in treated animals, theymay emerge later in the winter once haircoats aremore favorable for their ecology, and closer contactwith other cattle means an increased opportunity fortransmission. Therefore, lice control treatments mayneed to be repeated later on in the winter, or delayeduntil significant numbers of lice emerge.Many operations find it difficult to give reproductivedisease vaccines immediately before breeding season,so these vaccines are administered at pregnancytesting time. While convenient, it is not the optimaltime immunologically to boost the immune systemagainst disease conditions they may not encounterfor nine more months. On the other hand, thepractice likely results in better protection thannot giving reproductive vaccines at all. If properproducts are used and directions followed, it is a safepractice as well. Killed vaccines are safe for pregnantcows. Several MLV reproductive vaccines are labeledas safe to be given to pregnant cows provided theyhad been given the same vaccine no less than 12months previously. When using MLV vaccinesduring pregnancy, failure to strictly adhere to theseinstructions can result in significant, sometimesdisastrous, pregnancy loss. Moreover, there issufficient concern over even the labeled use of these37-5extension.sdstate.edu 2020, South Dakota Board of Regents
products during pregnancy that the use of MLVvaccines in pregnant cows under any circumstancesshould be approached with extreme caution and isbest avoided altogether.Pre-Calving Health ManagementConsiderations For The Cow HerdVaccinationsLate gestation provides an opportunity for the cowcalf producer to enhance the cow’s ability to producehigh-quality colostrum once she calves. Vaccinescontaining antigens that stimulate the cow’s immunesystem against neonatal diarrhea pathogens such asrotavirus, coronavirus, Clostridium perfringens, andpathogenic strains of E. coli can be given to cows inlate gestation. The cow begins mobilizing antibodiesfrom her bloodstream into colostrum productionapproximately five weeks prior to calving. Therefore,administering these vaccines five to seven weekspre-calving is optimal. Labels on many of thesevaccines indicate it is possible to give them earlierthan this (for example, at pregnancy testing time),but waiting until later is probably more optimalimmunologically.later, especially if the herd is undergoing calf healthissues that could be addressed by boosting colostralimmunity.SummaryAs the foundation of the cow-calf operation, maturecows are depended upon to perform reproductivelyas well as to raise a healthy productive calf. Inorder for all these process to successfully occur yearafter year, maintaining cow health and preventinginfectious disease outbreaks should be a priority ofthe cow-calf producer.Clostridium perfringens Type A has been increasinglyassociated with an increased incidence of stomachbloating, abomasal ulcers, and diarrhea in youngcalves. Vaccines against the toxin produced by thisbacterial type are not present in currently marketedcombination scours vaccines. It may be advisableto include Type A vaccine in the pre-calvingvaccination program in herds experiencing theseissues in young calves.Cow-calf herds that experience an increasedincidence in respiratory disease in young calves maywish to optimize colostral protection by includingvaccines against viral and bacterial respiratorypathogens in the pre-calving vaccine program.Extreme caution should be taken if MLV respiratoryvaccines are considered in pregnant cows: producersshould obtain veterinary advice about this practice.Regardless of the specific vaccines used pre-calving,cows that have not been previously vaccinatedshould be initially vaccinated 4-6 weeks prior to thesecond dose described above. In herds with longcalving seasons, it may be useful to give anotherbooster to cows that have still not calved 4-6 weeks37-6extension.sdstate.edu 2020, South Dakota Board of Regents
ReferencesDrost, M., and P. G. A. Thomas. 1996. Femalereproductive disorders. In: B. P. Smith, editor, Largeanimal internal medicine. 2nd ed. Mosby, St. Louis,MO. p. 1519-1565.O’Toole, D., M. M. Miller, J. L. Cavender, and T. E.Cornish. 2012. Pathology in practice: Abortion in theheifers of this report was a result of BoHV-1 infection.J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 241:189-191.Perry, G. A., A. D. Zimmerman, R. F. Daly, R. E.Buterbaugh, J. Rhoades, D. Scholz, A. Harmon, andC. C. Chase. 2013. The effects of vaccination onserum hormone concentrations and conception ratesin synchronized naive beef heifers. Theriogenology.79:200-205.Rae, D. O. 1999. Evaluation of beef cattle reproductiveperformance. In: J. L. Howard, editor, Currentveterinary therapy. 4th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.p. 606-611.37-7extension.sdstate.edu 2020, South Dakota Board of Regents
the entire fetus and placenta are available and sent promptly to the veterinary diagnostic laboratory. Pinkeye. Cows are not as commonly affected with pinkeye . as younger animals, but cases in cows still occur . nonetheless. Pinkeye (infectious keratoconjunctivitis) is caused by the bacteria . Moraxella bovis. and other related bacteria.
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Chính Văn.- Còn đức Thế tôn thì tuệ giác cực kỳ trong sạch 8: hiện hành bất nhị 9, đạt đến vô tướng 10, đứng vào chỗ đứng của các đức Thế tôn 11, thể hiện tính bình đẳng của các Ngài, đến chỗ không còn chướng ngại 12, giáo pháp không thể khuynh đảo, tâm thức không bị cản trở, cái được
Part One: Heir of Ash Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 .
TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD. Contents Dedication Epigraph Part One Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Part Two Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18. Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26
