Zend Avesta Em Portugues Pdf

Zend avesta em portugues pdf.You are reading a free preview pages 33 through 39 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free 50 page view page is not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 56 through 64 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 70 to 100 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free previewpages 147 through 209 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 229 through 239 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 259 through 332 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 352 through 354 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages374 through 399 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 458 to 560 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 597 through 738 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages from 792 to 870 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 929 through1093 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 1125 through 1202 are not displayed in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 1235 through 1311 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages from 1343 to 1348 are not shown in this preview. You are reading a free preview pages 1379through 1383 are not shown in this preview. Script used to write several languages of the Old Near East For other uses, see Cuneiform (deambiguation). CuneiformE cuneiform inscription of Xerxes I in van fortress in Turkey, written in Persian, Elamite and Babylonian forms of cuneiform type Logographic type and syllabaryCreated around 3200 a.C.[1]Periodc time. 21st century a.C. to the 2nd century ADDirectionleft-to-right LanguagesSumerian, Acadian, Eblaite, Elamite, Hittite, Hurrian, Luwian, Urartian, PalaicRelated scriptsParent systems (Proto-writing)CuneiformChild systemsNone; influenced the shape of the lurcic glyphosum and ancient Persian 15924ISO 15924Xsux, 020 , Cuneiform,Sumero-AkkadianUnicode aliasCuneiformUnicode range U 12000 a U 123FF Cuneiform U 12400 a U 1247F Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide to IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], \\\/ \\\/ \\\/ and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA brackets § and transcription delimiters. This article contains cuneiform script. Without proper rendering support, you can see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of cuneiform script. Cuneiform is a soon-to-be-alabic script that was used to write several languages of the Old Near East. [4] The script was in active use from the earlyBronze Age until the beginning of the Common Age. [5] It is named for the characteristic wedge-shaped prints (Latin: cuneus) that form its signs. Cuneiform was originally developed to write the Sumerian language of southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). Along with Egyptian hieroglyphics, it is one of the first writing systems. Throughout itshistory, cuneiform has been adapted to write a number of languages in addition to Sumerio. The Acarian texts are attested from the 24th century to .C. and make up most of the cuneiform record. [7] The Cuneiform Acadia was adapted to write the Hittite language at the beginning of the second millennium a.C.[8][9] The other languages withsignificant cuneiform corpora are Eblaita, Elamita, Hurrian, Luwian, and Urariana. The ancient Persian and Ugaritic alphabets display signs in the cuneiform style, however they are not related to the cuneiform-syllabary logo itself. The most recent known cuneiform tablet dates from 75 a.[10] The script was completely out of use soon after and wasforgotten until its rediscovery and decipheration in the 19th century. It is estimated that half a million tablets are kept in museums around the world, but comparatively few of them are published. The largest collections belong to the British Museum (about 130,000 tablets), the Vorderasiatisches Berlin Museum, the Louvre, the Istanbul ArchaeologyMuseums, the National Museum of Iraq, the Yale Babylonian Collection (about 40,000 tablets) and the Penn Museum. [11] History See also: History of writing accounting tokensSAssastasspresas, with goat or sheep design and number (probably \\\"10\\\"), Al-Hasakah, 3300-3100 a.C., uruk culture[12][13]Clay envelope and its tokens. Susa, urukperiodClay accounting tokens. Susa, Uruk Period Table illustrating the progressive simplification of cuneiform signs of the archaic script to the Assyrian Assyrian Assyrian The origins of writing appear during the early neolithic ceramic phase, when clay tokens were used to record specific amounts of cattle or goods. [14] These tokens were initiallyimpressed on the surface of round clay envelopes and then stored in them. [14] The tokens were then progressively replaced by flat tablets, in which the signals were recorded with a pen. The actual writing is is recorded in Uruk at the end of the 4th millennium .C. and soon after in various parts of the Near East. [14] An ancient Mesopotamian poemgives the first known story of the invention of writing: As the messenger's mouth was heavy and he could not repeat [the message], the Lord of Kulaba patted the clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there were no words on clay.— Sumerio epic poem Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta. Around 1800 .C. [15] [16] The cuneiform writing systemwas in use for more than three millennia, through various stages of development, from the 31st century to the second century d.[17] It was completely replaced by alphabetic writing (in the general sense) in the course of the Roman era, and there are no cuneiform systems in the present use. It had to be deciphered as a completely unknown writingsystem in 19th-century Assyriology. The cuneiform script underwent considerable changes over a period of more than two millennia. The image below shows the development of the SAṬ sign (Borger nr. 184, U 12295\\ud808\\ude95). Steps: shows the pictogram as it was drawn around 3000 a.C., shows the rotating pictogram written from c. 2800-2600to.C. shows the abstract glyph in archaic monumental inscriptions, from c. 2600 bc.C. is the sign written on clay, contemporary with stage 3 represents the end of the 3rd millennium a.C. represents ancient Assyrian duct of the beginning of the 21st century.C., as adopted in Hittite is the simplified sign as written by Assyrian scribes at the beginning ofthe first millennium a.C. and until the extinction of the script. Sumerio pictographers (about 3500 .C.) See also: Kish tablet tablet with proto-cuneiform pictographic characters (end of the 4th millennium to.C.), Uruk III. It is believed to be a list of slave names, the hand in the upper left corner representing the owner. [18] The cuneiform script wasdeveloped from pictographic proto-writing at the end of the 4th millennium to .C., derived from the near-eastern token system used for accounting. These tokens were used from the 9th millennium to .C. and remained in occasional use even at the end of the 2nd millennium a.C. [19] The first tokens with pictographic forms of animals, associated withnumbers, were discovered in Tell Brak, and date from the mid-4th millennium to.C. [20] It has been suggested that token forms were the original basis for some of the Sumerio pictographs. [21] The Kish tablet, a Kish limestone plank with pictographic, early cuneiform, written, 3500 a.C. Possibly the oldest known example of writing. AshmoleanMuseum. The \"proto-literate\" period of Mesopotamia covers approximately the 35th to 32nd centuries .C. The first unambiguous written documents begin with the Uruk IV period, from about 3,300 to .C., followed by tablets found in Uruk III, Jemdet Nasr, and Susa (in Proto-Elamitão) dating from the period to about 2,900 a.C. [22] Originally,pictograms were drawn on clay tablets on vertical columns with a sharp pen or incised in stone. This initial style did not have the characteristic wedge shape of the traces. [23] Most protocuneiform records from this period were accounting in nature. [24] Certain signs indicating names of gods, countries, cities, ships, birds, trees, etc., are known asdeterminants and were the Sumerio signs of the terms in question, added as a guide to the reader. First names continued to be generally written purely \\\"logographic\\\". Archaic cuneiform (about 3000 a.C.) More information: Liste der archaischen Keilschriftzeichen Early pictographic signs in archaic cuneiform (used vertically before c.2300 bc.C.).[25] The first tablets inscribed were purely pictographic, which makes it technically impossible to know in which language they were written, but later tablets after about 2,900 a.C. begin to use silabic elements, which clearly show a linguistic structure typical of the non-Indo-European agglutinating Sumei language. [26] The first tablets using silabicelements date from the initial dynastic I-II, about 2,800 a.C., and they are agreed to be clearly in Sumei. [27] This is the time when some pictographic element began to be used for its phonetic value, allowing the recording of abstract ideas or personal names. [27] Many pictograms began to lose their original function, and a given signal could haveseveral meanings depending on the context. Signal inventory was reduced from about 1,500 signals to about 600 signals, and writing became increasingly phonological. Determining signs have been reintroduced to avoid ambiguity. Cuneiform writing itself thus arises from the most primitive system of pictograms at that time (Bronze Age II). The oldestknown Sumei king, whose name in contemporary cuneiform tablets, it is Enmebaragesi de Kish (fl.c. 2600 a.C. [28] The surviving records became less fragmentary for the following reigns and, at the end of the pre-Sargonic period, became standard practice for each city-state to this day documents by year names, commemorating the exploits of hislugal (king). Precuneiform tablet, end of the 4th millennium .C. Proto-cuneiform tablet, Jemdet Nasr period, c. 3100-2900 a.C. Proto-cuneiform tablet, Jemdet Nasr period, c. 3100-2900 a.C. A dog on a leash is visible at the bottom of the bottom panel. [29] Blau Monuments combine proto-cuneiform characters and illustrations, 3100-2700 a.C. BritishMuseum. Cuneiformes and hieroglyphicgeoffrey Sampson stated that Egyptian hieroglyphics \\\"emerged shortly after the Sumerian script, and were probably [invented] under the influence of the latter\\\", [30] and that it is \\\"likely that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from The SumerianMesopotamia\\\". [32] There are many cases of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations at the time of the invention of writing, and standard reconstructions of the development of writing generally place the development of the Sumemian proto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphics, with the suggestion that the former influenced thelatter. [33] Primitive dynastic cuneiform (about 2500 .C.) More information: List of cuneiform signs and Sumeric language The Sumerian Wikibook\\\/List has a page on the theme of: Alphabetical list of all cuneiform signs Unicode Sumeric inscription in monumental archaic style, c. 26th century a.C. The first cuneiform inscription used simple linearinscriptions, made using a pontiata pen, sometimes called \"linear cuneiform\", before the introduction of new wedge-like stilettos with their typical wedge-shaped signs. [34] Many of the earliest dynastic inscriptions, particularly those made of stone, continued to use the linear style around 2000 bc.C. [34] In the mid-third millennium to .C., a newwedge-tipped pen was introduced that was pushed into the clay, producing wedge-shaped signs (\\\"cuneiform\\\"). the development made writing faster and easier, especially when writing on soft clay. [34] By adjusting the pen's relative position to the tablet, the writer could use a single tool to cause a variety of prints. [34] For numbers, a round-tippedpen was initially used, until the wedge-tipped pen was generalized. [34] The direction of writing remained from top to bottom and right to left until the mid-second millennium a.C. [34] Cuneiform clay tablets could be fired into ovens to forcefully blow them, and thus provide a permanent record, or they could be left moist and recycled if permanencewas not needed. Many of the clay tablets found by archaeologists were preserved by chance, baked by attacking armies that burned the buildings in which they were kept. [34] From linear stylus to angularWedge-tipped for clay planksThe regnal name \\\"Lugal-dalu\\\" in archaic linear script around 2500 a.C., and the same name stylized with standardcuneiform Sumero-Akkadian (\\ud808\\ude17\\ud808\\udc55\\ud808\\udddfb). The script was also widely used in commemorative stoneware and carved reliefs to record the achievements of the ruler in whose honor the monument had been erected. The spoken language included many homophones and near-homophones, and at first, similar words suchas \\\"life\\\" [tilde] and \\\"arrow\\\" [ti] were written with the same symbol. After the Semites conquered South Mesopotamia, some signs gradually changed from pictograms to syllabograms, probably to make things clearer in writing. In this way, the sign for the word \\\"arrow\\\" would become the sign for the sound \\\"ti\\\". Contract for the sale of afield and a house in the wedge-shaped cuneiform adapted for clay tablets, Shuruppak, around 2600 a.C. Words that sounded the same would have different signs; for example, the syllable had fourteen different symbols. When words had a similar meaning, but very different sounds, they were written with the same symbol. For example, 'dente' [zu],'boca' [ka] and 'voice' [gu] were all written with the symbol of \\\"voice\\\". To be more precise, the scribes began to add signs or combine two signs to define the meaning. They used geometric patterns or another cuneiform sign. Over time, the cuneiform became very complex and the distinction between a pictogram and a syllabogram became vague.Several symbols had too many meanings to allow clarity. Therefore, symbols were assembled to indicate the sound and meaning of a compound. The word \\\"crow\\\" [UGA] had the same logoram as the word 'soap' [NAGA], the name of a city [EREŠ], and the patron goddess of Eresh [NISABA]. Two phonetic add-ons were used to define the word [u] onthe front of the symbol and [gu] behind. Finally, the 'bird' symbol [MUŠEN] has been added to ensure the interpretation of [clarification needed] For unknown reasons, the cuneiform pictograms, until then written vertically, were rotated 90 to the left, putting them aside. This change occurred for the first time just before the Acadian period, at thetime of the ruler Uruk Lugalzagesi (r.c. (r.c. BC). [34] The vertical style remained for monumental purposes on stone sletases until the mid-2nd millennium. [34] Sumerio writing was used as a scribe language until the first century D.C. The spoken language died between 2100 and 1700 .C. Sumero-Acadia cuneiform More information: Acadia languageSumero-akkadian cuneiform syllabary (about 2200 a.C.) Left: Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary, used by the first Akkadian rulers. [36] Law:Seal of the ruling Acadian Empire Naram-Sin (inverted for readability), c. 2250 a.C. The name of Naram-Sin \\udf808\\udf808:DNa-ra-am DSîn, Sîn being written \\ud808\\udc97\\ud808\\udf6a EN.ZU), appears vertically in the right column. [37] British Museum. These are some of the most important signs: the complete list of Sumero-Acarious characters actuallynumbers about 600, with much more \\\"values\\\", or pronunciation possibilities. [38] The archaic cuneiform script was adopted by the 13th-century Acadian Empire .C. (short chronology). The Acadian language is Semitic, its structure was completely different from sumeana. [39] There was no way to use the Sumei writing system as such, and theAcaricans found a practical solution by writing their language phonetically, using the corresponding Sumean phonetic signals. [39] Still, some of the Sumerio characters were retained for their pictorial value as well: for example, the character for \\\"sheep\\\" was retained, but has now been pronounced immerū, instead of the Sumerio \\\"udu-meš\\\".[39] Semitic languages employed equivalents for many signals that were distorted or abbreviated to represent new values because the sylabic nature of the script as refined by the Sumerios was not intuitive for Semitic speakers. [39] Since the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (20th.C century.), the script has evolved to accommodate the variousdialects of Acadian: Ancient Acadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian. [39] In particular, the ancient Assyrian cuneiform employed many modifications in Sumerian spelling. At this stage, the previous pictograms were reduced to a high level of abstraction, and were composed of only five basic wedge shapes: horizontal, vertical, two diagonals, and the shakenWinkel vertically impressed by the tip of the pen. The exemplary signs of these basic wedges are: AŠ (B001, U 12038) \\ud808\\udc38: horizontal; DIŠ (B748, U 12079) \\ud808\\udc79: vertical; GE23, DIŠ tenû (B575, U 12039) \\ud808\\udc39: downward diagonal; GE22 (B647, U 1203A) \\ud808\\udc3a: diagonal ascending; U (B661, U 1230B)\\ud808\\udf0b: the shaken Winkel. 2nd millennium a.C. cuneiformesThe Babylonian king Hammurabi still wore vertical cuneiform around 1750 .C. Babylonian tablets from the Hammurabi era (around 1750 bc.C.). The sumero-acadia cuneiform, whether in inscriptions or on clay tablets, continued to be used, mainly as a phonetic syllabary, throughoutthe 2nd millennium a.C. With the exception of winkelhaken, which has no tail, the length of the tails of the wedges may vary as needed for the composition of the signal. Signs tilted by about 45 degrees are called tenû in acadian, so DIŠ is a vertical wedge and DIŠ tenû a diagonal. If a signal is modified with additional wedges, this is called gunû or\\\"gunification\\\"; if the signs are hatched with additional winkel shaken, they are called šešig; if the signs are modified by removing a wedge or wedges, they are called nutillu. The \\\"typical\\ signs\" have about five to ten wedges, while complex ligatures can consist of twenty or more (although it is not always clear whether a ligature should beconsidered a single signal or two colliding but distinct signals); KAxGUR7 bandage consists of 31 strokes. Most later adaptations of the Suméir cuneiform preserved at least some aspects of the Sumerio script. Written Acadium included phonetic symbols of the Sumerio syllabary, along with logograms that were read as whole words. Many signs in thescript were multipurpose, having a sylabic and logographic meaning. The complexity of the system bears a resemblance to ancient Japanese, written in a script derived from China, where some of these sinograms were used as logograms and others as phonetic characters. Elamite cuneiform Main article: Elamite cuneiform Elamite Elamite cuneiformwas a simplified form of sumero-acadia cuneiform, used to write the Elamite language in the area corresponding to modern Iran. Cuneiform elamite sometimes competed with other local scripts, Proto-Elamitite and Linear Elamite. The oldest Elamite cuneiform text is a treatise between the Akkadians and the Elamites dating back to 2200 a.C. [40]However, some believe it could have been used since 2500 a.C. [41] The tablets are poorly preserved, so only limited parts can be read, but it is understood that the text is a treatise between King Akkad and the Elamite ruler Hita, as indicated by frequent references as \\\"Nāramsîn's friend is my friend, the enemy of Nāramsîn is my enemy\\\". [40] Themost famous Elamite scriptures and those that ultimately led to its decipheration are those found in trilingual Behistun, commissioned by the Ahemenid kings. [42] The inscriptions, similar to those of the Rosetta Stone, were written in three different writing systems. The first was the ancient Persian, which was deciphered in 1802 by Georg FriedrichGrotefend. The second, Babylonian cuneiform, was deciphered shortly after the ancient Persian text. As Elamite is different from its neighboring Semitic languages, the deciphering of the script was postponed until the 1840s. Even today, the lack of sources and comparative materials hinder scans of Elamite. [43] Assyrian cuneiform neo-Assyriancuneiform syllabary cuneiform (about 650 a.C.) Left: Syllabary simplified cuneiform, in use during the Neo-Assyrian period. [36] The \\\"C\\\" before and after vowels means \\\"Consonant\\\". Right: Paving slab of the Mesopotamian palace, c. 600 a.C., this \\\"mixed\\\" method of writing continued until the end of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires,although there were periods when \"purism\\ \" was fashionable and there was a more pronounced tendency to spell the words laboriously, in preference to the use of signs with a phonetic complement. However, even at that time, the Babylonian syllabary remained a mixture of logographic and phonemic writing. Hitite cuneiform is an adaptation of theancient Assyrian cuneiform from c. 1800 a.C. to the Hittite language. When the cuneiform script was adapted to write Hittite, a layer of acadias logographic spellings was added to the script, so the pronunciations of many Hittite words that were conventionally written by logograms are now unknown. In the Iron Age (20th to 5th centuries .C.), assyriancuneiform was further simplified. The characters remained the same as those of sumero-acarian cuneiformes, but the graphic design of each character depended more heavily on wedges and square angles, making them significantly more abstract. The pronunciation of the characters was replaced by the Assyrian dialect of the Acadian language:\\\"Assurbanipo King of Assyria\\\"Aššur-bani-habal šar mat Aššur KISame characters, in the classic Sumero-Acadian script from about 2000 to .C., and in the neo-Assyrian script of the rassam cylinder, 643 a.C. (lower). [44] The cylinder rassam with translation of a segment on the Assyrian conquest of Egypt by Ashurbanipal against \\\"Black Pharaoh\\\"Taharqa, 643 a.C. From the 6th century, the Akaide language was marginalized by Aramaic, written in the Aramaian alphabet, but the Neo-Assyrian cuneiform remained in use in the literary tradition well in the times of the Parthian Empire (250 a.C.- 226 d.C.). [45] The last known cuneiform inscription, an astronomical text, was written in 75 d.[46]The ability to read cuneiform may have persisted until the 3rd century d.[47][48] Scripts derived from Old Persian cuneiform (5th century a.C.) Ancient syllabary Persian cuneiform (circa 500 a.C.) Ancient cuneiform syllabary cuneiform, and the inscription DNa (part II) of Darius the Great (around 490 a.C.), in the newly created Persian cuneiform.Main article: Ancient Persian cuneiforma The complexity of cuneiforms led to the development of a series of simplified versions of the script. The ancient Persian cuneiform was developed with an independent and unrelated set of simple cuneiform characters by Darius the Great in the 5th century .C. Most scholars consider this writing system anindependent invention because it has no obvious connections with other writing systems at the time, such as Elamite, Acadia, Hurrian and Hittite cuneiforms. [49] He formed a semi-alphabetic syllabary, using far fewer wedge blows than assyrians used, along with a handful of logograms for words often occurring such as \\\"god\\\" (\\ud800\\udfce),\\\"king\\\" (\\ud800\\udfcb) or \\\"country\\\" (\\ud800\\udfcc). This almost purely alphabetical form of the cuneiform script (36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms) was specially designed and used by the first Achaemenid rulers from the 6th century to.C. until the 4th century .C. [50] Due to its simplicity and logical structure, the ancient Persiancuneiform script was the first to be deciphered by modern scholars, beginning with the achievements of Georg Friedrich Grotefend in 1802. Several ancient bilingual or trilingual inscriptions allowed to decipher the other, much more complicated and older, since the third millennium of sumerio script. Ugaritic Ugaritic was written using the Ugariticalphabet, a standard Semitic-style alphabet (an abjad) written using the cuneiform method. Archaeology It is estimated that between half a million and two million cuneiform tablets have been excavated in modern times, of which only approximately 30,000[51]-100,000 have been read or published. The British Museum has the largest collection(approximately 130,000 tablets), followed by the Vorderasiatisches Berlin Museum, the Louvre, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, the National Museum of Iraq, the Yale Babylonian Collection (about 40,000) and the Penn Museum. Most of them have in these collections for a century without being studied or published\\\",[11] as there are only a fewhundred qualified cuneiformists in the world. [51] Decipherment For centuries, travelers to Persepolis, located in Iran, noticed carved cuneiform inscriptions and were intrigued. [52] Attempts to decipher the ancient Persian cuneiform date back to the Arab-Persian historians of the medieval Islamic world, although these early attempts at decipheringwere unsuccessful. [53] In the 15th century, the Venetian Giosafat Barbaro explored ancient ruins in the Middle East and returned with the news of a very strange writing he had found carved into the stones in shiraz temples and on many clay tablets. Antonio de Gouvea, professor of theology, observed in 1602 the strange writing he had theopportunity to observe during his travels a year earlier in Persia. [56] In 1625, the Roman traveler Pietro Della Valle, who had sat in Mesopotamia between 1616 and 1621, brought to Europe copies of characters he had seen in Persepolis and inscribed bricks of you and the ruins of Babylon. [58] The copies he made, the first copies that reachedcirculation within Europe, were not very accurate, but Della Valle understood that the writing had to be read from left to right, following the direction of the wedges. However, he did not attempt to decipher the scripts. [59] Englishman Sir Thomas Herbert, in the 1638 edition of his travel book Some Yeares Travels into Africa & Asia the Great,reported seeing in Persepolis carved on the wall '\"a dozen lines of strange characters. consisting of figures, obelisk, triangular and pyramid\\\" and they thought they resembled the Greek. [60] In the 1677 edition, he reproduced some and thought they were \\\"readable and intelligible\\\" and therefore decipherable. He also correctly guessed that theydid not represent letters or hieroglyphics, but words and syllables, and should be read from left to right. [61] Herbert is rarely mentioned in standard cuneiform decryption stories. In 1700 Thomas Hyde first called the inscriptions \\\"cuneiform\", but considered that they were no more than decorative friezes. [62] Ancient Persian cuneiform: deductionof the word for \\\"King\\\" (around 1800) Cuneiform inscriptions recorded by Jean Chardin in Persepolis in 1674 (1711 edition) Proper attempts to decipher ancient Persian cuneiform began with faithful copies of cuneiform inscriptions, which first became available in 1711, when duplicates of Darius' inscriptions were published by Jean Chardin. [64]Carsten Niebuhr brought very complete and accurate copies of the inscriptions in Persepolis to Europe, published in 1767 in Reisebeschreibungen nach Arabien (\\\"Account of trips to Arabia and other surrounding lands\\\"). [52]: 9 The set of characters that would later be known as the ancient Persian cuneiform was soon perceived as being thesimplest of the three types of cuneiform scripts that had been found, and because of this was understood as a primary candidate for decryption (the two other oldest and most complicated scripts were Elamites and Babylonians). Niebuhr identified that there were only 42 characters in the simplest category of inscriptions, which he called \\\"Class I\\\",and stated that this should therefore be an alphabetical script. [66] At the same time, Anquetil-Duperron returned from India, where he had learned Pahlavi and Persian under parsis, and published in 1771 a translation of Zend Avesta, thus making Avestan, one of the ancient Iranian languages. [66] On this basis, Antoine Isaac Silvestre of Sacy wasable to begin the study of middle Persian in 1792–93 during the French Revolution, and he realized that the inscriptions of Naqsh-e Rostam had a rather stereotypical structure on the model: \\\"Name of the King, the Great King, the King of Iran and Aniran, son of N., the Great King, etc. \\\". He published his results in 1793 in Mémoire sur diversesantiquités de la Perse. [66] In 1798, Oluf Gerhard Tychsen made the first study of the Inscriptions of Persepolis copied by Niebuhr. [66] He discovered that character series in the Persian inscriptions were divided into each other by an oblique wedge (\\ud800\\udfd0) and that these should be individual words. He also found that a specific group of sevenletters \\udfb9\\ud800\\udfb0\\ud800\\udfa1\\ud800\\udfb9) was recurrent in the inscriptions, and that they had some recurring endings of three to four letters. [66] However, Tychsen misattributed the texts to the arsacid kings and was therefore unable to make further progress. Friedrich MünterBishop of Copenhagen improved on Tychsen's work, and proved that the inscriptions must belong to the age of Cyrus and his successors, which led to the suggestion that the inscription

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