Mapping The Complexity Of Forensic Science: Implications For Forensic .

Mapping the Complexity of Forensic Science: Implications for Forensic Science Education Ahmad Nabil Samarji School of Education Faculty of Arts, Education, and Human Development Victoria University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education December, 2010 I

ABSTRACT Over the past two decades the field of forensic science has experienced a remarkable development and a substantially enhanced public profile. The prominence of forensic science has resulted from scientific and technological advances, increased reliance of law enforcement agencies and judicial systems and its popularisation through the mass media. Consequently, forensic science education has been characterised by a rapid expansion in both the number of forensic science courses and the number of students enrolling in such courses. However, very little is published on forensic science education. This research aims to identify how best to organise and deliver forensic science education. By doing so, the research aims to generate graduates who are more proficient and with the knowledge and expertise needed for them to cope with the technological advances revolutionising forensic science and with ongoing security demands and challenges. In order to meet its aim, the research has investigated forensic science education from its determining factors: forensic science knowledge, practice, and identity. The research adopted a qualitative approach to undertake the investigation. A document analysis of the published curricula of 190 forensic science academic programs offered worldwide produced an overview of the current status of forensic science education. Secondly, the research employed semi-structured interviews with a number of forensic science educators, forensic science practitioners, and members of professions associated with forensic science about their conceptions of forensic science knowledge, practice, and identity. This outcome of the methodology has been the proposition of critical features relating to the nature of forensic science. These critical features have become the basis for a consideration of the form of forensic science education. The study identified four zones of knowledge within forensic science. These zones showed ontological connections with the segmented nature of forensic science practice and the cultural conflict existing within the field. The study found that the current reigning paradigm of forensic science is the result of an incomplete shift from an old explicitly policed reigning paradigm towards a new explicitly scientific reigning II

paradigm. The research has led to the proposition of a set of curricular and pedagogical markers which reflect the nature of forensic science and respond to the epistemological and ontological challenges existing within the forensic science field. III

Student Declaration “I, Ahmad Nabil Samarji, declare that the PhD thesis entitled ‘Mapping the Complexity of Forensic Science: Implications for Forensic Science Education’ is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work”. Ahmad Nabil Samarji Ahmad Samarji 21st December, 2010 IV

First & Last, All Praises unto Allah, the Almighty, for His guidance, for providing me with the effort and the patience to conduct this research to completion. for everything V

Acknowledgements I like to acknowledge the invaluable and thoughtful guidance and assistance provided by my supervisors, Associate Professor Tony Kruger and Doctor Neil Hooley, during the research journey and writing of this thesis. Throughout this undertaking, their understanding, support, feedback, and constructive critique have helped keep me focused, challenged, and productive. I would also like to thank the staff of the school of education for treating me as a member of the group in a friendly environment of knowledge, support, and care. I also wish to pay tribute to all those interviewees who generously gave of their time and insights. The process has been an enriching experience for me. VI

To my Mother, Ghazwa, the most precious person in my life, To my Father, Nabil, my role model and great support, To my Sisters: Rima & Zeina, To my Brothers: Tarek, Omar, and Ahmad el Hakeem, To my Grandmother, Najda, the blessing of our family, To my Aunty Raoha, the aunt, the sister, and the best friend, To my Uncle Barrack, the uncle, the brother, and the best friend, With love, Ahmad Samarji VII

Table of Contents ABSTRACT . II STUDENT DECLARATION . IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . VI TABLE OF CONTENTS . VIII LIST OF FIGURES. XV CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1- THE SUBJECT OF THE STUDY .1 1.2- FORENSIC SCIENCE: A FIELD UNDER THE MICROSCOPE .3 1.3- FORENSIC SCIENCE: DEFINITIONS AND LANDSCAPE .5 1.3.1- DEFINITIONS . 5 1.3.2- LANDSCAPE . 6 1.4- FORENSIC SCIENCE DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION THROUGH HISTORY .9 1.4.1- PERIOD 287 BC- 1850 AD . 9 1.4.2- PERIOD 1851- 1950. 9 1.4.3- PERIOD 1951- PRESENT . 11 1.5- FORENSIC SCIENCE IN PUBLIC . 12 1.6- PUBLIC INTEREST CONSEQUENCES . 14 1.7- WHAT IS FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION? A PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION . 14 1.8- FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . 16 1.9- FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE . 19 1.10- FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 20 1.11- FORENSIC SCIENCE IDENTITY . 22 1.12- PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION . 23 1.13- RESEARCH AIMS & QUESTIONS . 24 1.14- RESEARCH STANCE . 25 1.15- RESEARCH DESIGN . 26 1.16- APPROPRIATENESS OF THE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH . 28 1.17- LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY . 29 VIII

1.18- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY . 30 1.19- THESIS STRUCTURE . 30 1.20- CHAPTER SUMMARY. 33 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW . 35 2.1- INTRODUCTION . 35 2.2- THE EDUCATION BODY OF LITERATURE . 36 2.2.1-TERTIARY EDUCATION AND CURRICULA . 38 2.2.2-SCIENCE EDUCATION . 45 2.2.3- A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY: MEDICAL EDUCATION . 54 2.2.4- CURRICULAR INTEGRATION . 60 2.2.5- PEDAGOGIES AND LEARNING APPROACHES. 67 2.2.6- DECISION-MAKING ABOUT CURRICULAR AND PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES FROM A SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE . 81 2.2.7- THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN PROMOTING DISCIPLINE-SPECIFIC SKILLS, GENERIC SKILLS, AND GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES. . 84 2.3- THE FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION BODY OF LITERATURE . 87 2.3.1- FORENSIC SCIENCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION . 87 2.3.2- THE DETERMINING FACTORS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE EDUCATION: KNOWLEDGE, PRACTICE, AND IDENTITY. 95 2.4- THE TWO BODIES OF LITERATURE: AN INFORMATIVE LANDSCAPE . 116 2.5- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 118 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY . 120 3.1- INTRODUCTION . 120 3.2- METHODS OF INQUIRY IN EDUCATION . 121 3.3- QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: DEFINITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS . 122 3.4- RESEARCH CASES WHICH REQUIRES QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY . 122 3.5- STRATEGIES WITHIN QUALITATIVE INQUIRIES . 124 3.6- THE QUALITATIVE NATURE OF THE STUDY . 124 3.7- CHOICE OF METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH . 125 3.7.1- DOCUMENT ANALYSIS. 127 3.7.2- SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWING. 131 3.7.3- FINAL ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION . 137 IX

3.8- METHODOLOGY LIMITATIONS . 140 3.9- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 141 CHAPTER 4: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS . 143 4.1- INTRODUCTION . 143 4.2- LIST OF THE PARTICIPATING PROGRAMS. 144 4.3- SELECTION CRITERIA . 145 4.3.1- THE FIRST STAGE OF SELECTION: EXCLUSION-BASED CRITERION . 146 4.3.2- THE SECOND STAGE OF SELECTION: REPRESENTATIVE CLASSIFICATION CRITERION . 149 4.3.3- THE THIRD STAGE OF THE SELECTION: POINTS- BASED CRITERION . 154 4.4- DATA CODING . 157 4.5- DATA ANALYSIS AND IMPLICATIONS . 159 4.5.1- KNOWLEDGE CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES. 159 4.5.2- PRACTICE CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES . 166 4.5.3- IDENTITY CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES . 170 4.6- THEMES GENERATED BY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS. 179 4.7- GREY AREAS AWAITING CLARIFICATION . 184 CHAPTER 5: CONCEPTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE . 187 5.1- INTRODUCTION . 187 5.2- TOPIC CODING: CATEGORIES OF CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE ATTRIBUTES. 190 5.2.1- CATEGORY 1: EDUCATION BACKGROUNDS AND EXPERIENCES OF PARTICIPANTS . 190 5.2.2- CATEGORY 2: EMPHASISED FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE BASE AND COMPETENCIES. . 195 5.2.3- CATEGORY 3: CURRICULAR APPROACHES THROUGH WHICH FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE IS TO BE ORGANISED. 206 5.2.4- CATEGORY 4: PEDAGOGIES REQUIRED TO EMPHASISE FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE . 210 5.2.5- CATEGORY 5: DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN THE KNOWLEDGE-BASE AND COMPETENCIES OF FORENSIC SCIENCE EXPERTS WITH TERTIARY EDUCATION AND THOSE WITHOUT. . 214 5.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS . 219 5.3.1- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FIRST KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 219 5.3.2- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE SECOND KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 221 5.3.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE THIRD KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 225 5.3.4- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FOURTH KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 226 5.3.5- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FIFTH KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 227 X

5.3.6- SUMMARY OF THE INTER-CATEGORICAL CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES ACROSS THE FIVE CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE CATEGORIES. . 228 5.4- FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE: A CROSS- CATEGORICAL SYNTHESIS. 229 5.4.1- THE NATURE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE FROM A KNOWLEDGE PERSPECTIVE. 231 5.4.2- THE GENERAL SET OF FORENSIC KNOWLEDGE EXEMPLARS . 234 5.4.3- EDUCATION WHICH RESPONDS TO THE NATURE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE AND EMPHASISES KNOWLEDGE EXEMPLARS . 240 5.5- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 245 CHAPTER 6: CONCEPTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 247 6.1- INTRODUCTION . 247 6.2- TOPIC CODING: CATEGORIES OF CONCEPTUAL PRACTICE ATTRIBUTES . 249 6.2.1- CATEGORY 1: THE PLACE OF THE CRIME SCENE IN FORENSIC PRACTICE . 249 6.2.2- CATEGORY 2: THE NOTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 252 6.2.3- CATEGORY 3: SEGMENTATION WITHIN FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 257 6.2.4- CATEGORY 4: ESSENTIAL FORENSIC PRACTICE COMPETENCIES . 261 6.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS . 264 6.3.1- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FIRST PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 264 6.3.2- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE SECOND PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 265 6.3.3- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE THIRD PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 267 6.3.4- INTER-CATEGORICAL ANALYSIS ACROSS THE FOURTH PRACTICE CATEGORY OF DESCRIPTION . 268 6.3.5- SUMMARY OF THE INTER-CATEGORICAL CONCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTES ACROSS THE FOUR CATEGORIES OF DESCRIPTION. 270 6.4- FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE: A CROSS- CATEGORICAL SYNTHESIS . 271 6.4.1- THE NATURE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE PRACTICE . 272 6.4.2- THE GENERAL SET OF PRACTICE EXEMPLARS . 275 6.4.3- THE EDUCATION WHICH RESPONDS TO THE NATURE OF PRACTICE AND EMPHASISES THE IDENTIFIED PRACTICE EXEMPLARS . 284 6.5- CHAPTER SUMMARY . 286 CHAPTER 7: CONCEPTIONS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IDENTITY . 288 7.1- INTRODUCTION . 288 7.2- TOPIC CODING: CATEGORIES OF CONCEPTUAL IDENTITY ATTRIBUTES . 290 7.2.1- MULTIPLICITY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING FORENSIC SCIENCE IDENTITY . 290 XI