Pinyin And Chinese Children's Phonological
Pinyin and Chinese Children’s Phonological Awareness by Xintian Du A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements For the degree of Master of Arts Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Ontario Institute of Studies in Education University of Toronto @Copyright by Xintian Du 2010
ABSTRACT Pinyin and Chinese Children’s Phonological Awareness Master of Arts 2010 Xintian Du Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning University of Toronto This paper critically reviewed the literature on the relationships between Pinyin and Chinese bilingual and monolingual children’s phonological awareness (PA) and identified areas of research worth of further investigation. As the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet providing pronunciation of the universal Chinese characters, Pinyin facilitates children’s early reading development. What research has found in English is that PA is a reliable indicator of later reading success and meta-linguistic training improves PA. In Chinese, a non-alphabetic language, there is also evidence that PA predicts reading in Chinese, which confirms the universality of PA’s role. However, research shows the uniqueness of each language: tonal awareness is stronger indicator in Chinese while phonemic awareness is stronger indicator in English. Moreover, Pinyin, the meta-linguistic training, has been found to improve PA in Chinese and reading in Chinese and possibly facilitate the cross-language transfer of PA from Chinese to English and vice versa. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am heartily thankful to my supervisors Becky Chen and Normand Labrie, whose guidance and support from the initial to the final level enabled me to develop a thorough understanding of the subject and eventually complete the thesis paper. In addition, I am indebted to many people in the OISE community including Katherine Rehner, Jim Cummins, Tony Lam, and Linda Pereira, for their inspiration, encouragement and assistance during my degree study. Lastly, I am most especially grateful to my father, my husband and my lovely children Jeffrey and Daniel for their great understanding and support while I have been juggling of study, work and life. iii
Table of Contents ABSTRACT . ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . iii List of Tables . v Chapter One: Introduction .1 1. Rationale of the review .1 2. Research questions .3 3. Methodology .3 Chapter Two: Pinyin .5 1. What is Pinyin? .5 2. Chinese phonology .8 3. Overview of other perspectives of Chinese language .9 4. Brief history of Chinese phonetic transcripts and Pinyin .13 5. Pinyin usage and instruction in China and other countries and regions.17 Chapter Three: Phonological awareness.21 1. English PA to reading in English .22 2. Chinese PA to reading in Chinese .25 3. Chinese PA, English PA and cross-language transfer .26 Chapter Four: Pinyin and PA .31 1. Pinyin to Chinese PA and reading in Chinese .31 2. Pinyin to English PA and reading in English and cross-language transfer .34 Chapter Five: Conclusion .36 1. Major findings of the reviewed research .36 2. Directions of future research .37 Appendices .40 References.46 iv
List of Tables Table 1: Initials of Pinyin ··········· 6 Table 2: Finals of Pinyin ············ 7 Table 3: Tones of Pinyin ············ 8 Table 4: Zhuyin ························ 16 Table 5: Initials in Pinyin and IPA ···················· 40 Table 6: Simple Finals in Pinyin and IPA ········· 40 Table 7: Compound Finals in Pinyin and IPA ··· 41 Table 8: Syllables of Pinyin ····· 41 Table 9: Chinese Language Use in China and regions ··············· 42 Table 10: Comparison of Vowels a, e, o, i Symbols ·················· 43 Table 11: Comparison of Vowels u, y Symbols ························· 43 Table 12: Comparison of Non-sibilant Consonants Symbols ···· 44 Table 13: Comparison of Sibilant Consonants Symbols ············ 44 Table 14: Comparison of Tones Symbols ········· 45 v
Chapter One: Introduction The present paper represents a critical review of the literature on the relationships between Pinyin and Chinese bilingual and monolingual children’s phonological awareness (PA) and identified areas of research worth of further investigation. Pinyin, the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet is an instrument to spell and pronounce the universal Chinese characters. 1. Rationale of the review Pinyin, or more formally Hanyu Pinyin ( 汉语拼音), is currently the most commonly used romanized phonetic system for the Chinese language. Hanyu (汉语) means the Chinese language, and, Pinyin means "phonetics". The system is now used in mainland China (and Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan) to teach Chinese to school children and internationally to teach Chinese as a second language. It is also often used to spell Chinese names in foreign publications and can be used to enter Chinese characters on computers and cell phones. The necessity and special role of Pinyin in Chinese children’s early literacy development come from the characteristics of the Chinese language. Chinese has a rich orthographic system. Unlike alphabetic languages such as English, the graphemes in Chinese do not map onto individual phonemes but instead onto characters, which are syllabic morphemes. In other words, a character cannot be pronounced by recourse to grapheme-phoneme correspondence rules. Chinese orthography centers on characters which may be divided into two categories: simple characters and compound characters. Only a small number of characters are simple ones that assemble strokes and cannot be divided into components. (Strokes with no association of any meaning and phonetic cues are not basic units for use in the language and strokes are merely applicable when learning to write characters or improve one’s handwriting.) More than 80 % of characters are phonetic semantic compounds that are made up of a phonetic radical and a semantic radical (Perfetti & Tan, 1999). Radicals are made of strokes like simple characters. The phonetic radical usually gives partial cues to the pronunciation of the whole character, whereas the semantic radical gives cues to its meaning. Overall, the validity of phonetic radicals in signaling whole characters’ pronunciation is less than 40% (Pollatsek, Tan & Rayner, 2000). Due to these features of the Chinese language, at the very early stage of Chinese reading, children would have to learn characters through rote memory. In a sense, a child is able to read a Chinese 1
2 character only when he or she has been taught to do so. However, ―the introduction of Pinyin may have changed the way in which the connection between speech and the writing is formed. When a child has acquired the pinyin principle, he or she is able to derive the sounds of characters through Pinyin and to match these sounds with the phonological codes that already exist in the mental lexicon. In other words, Pinyin knowledge bridges the gap between speech and writing in Chinese, and this enables children to derive the meanings of characters that are visually unfamiliar but auditorily familiar (Siok & Fletcher, 2001).‖ This is how Pinyin affects children’s early literacy development. With application of Roman letters, Pinyin becomes the unique tool for children to learn to pronounce unknown characters at the early stage of literacy. Nevertheless, Chinese bilingual children who learn to read and write Chinese and English in the two different writing systems have to mentally ―juggle‖ with Pinyin of Roman letters and Chinese characters, and English alphabet and words. Consequently, Pinyin will have a more complex role in the process of these children’s bi-literacy development. The literature reviewed in this paper has shown some evidence of this view which is also the direction for further study. Pinyin has been found out in the studies in the recent decade to be highly correlated to PA. PA is the conscious sensitivity to the sound structure of language. It includes the ability to distinguish units of speech such as syllables and phonemes. The ability to segment and blend phonemes is critical for the development of reading fluency and spelling. PA has, therefore, been the focus of much research on children’s cognitive and language development. Evidence from alphabetic languages shows a strong relationship between PA and reading success. However, many researchers in the past ten years have raised questions regarding phonological awareness of nonalphabetic languages: Is the importance of phonological awareness in learning to read universal across languages? Specifically, is there a similar relationship between phonological awareness and reading in a non-alphabetic language where the speech-writing mapping is less consistent and if so, what is the nature of phonological awareness for a non-alphabetic language? (Siok & Fletcher, 2001) So far, research on these issues has generated mixed evidence. In addition to the issue about PA in different writing systems, what remains in debate is whether or not the development of PA relates language experience such as training on alphabet and spelling, and orthography. Learning Pinyin is a typical language training experience for Chinese children to acquire Chinese characters---the first step to literacy in Chinese. Thus the
3 investigation of the relationship between Pinyin and Chinese children’s PA has shed some light not only on whether or not Chinese PA relates to Chinese reading but also more importantly on whether or not PA relates language training experience from the perspective of a non-alphabetical language. 2. Research questions Overall, the present paper identified the developments of research in the past twenty years on the following questions: What are the relationships among pinyin, Chinese PA and Chinese reading? What is the relationship between pinyin and English PA? What is the relationship between Chinese PA and English PA in the same group of Chinese children? The paper offers an interdisciplinary review of the literature which draws on theories from educational psychology and second language education. Specifically I looked into the studies on possible correlations among the key factors. Does Pinyin correlate with PA in Chinese? Does Pinyin correlate with Chinese reading? Does Pinyin correlate with PA in English? Does Chinese PA correlate to English PA? In the past twenty years, there has been ample literature on PA and reading in English, Chinese monolingual children’s PA development, the effects of Pinyin on Chinese monolingual children’s PA, and cross-language transfer of PA between alphabetic writing systems. However, there has been very few research conducted on the relationship between Pinyin and the development of PA among Chinese bilingual children. This review shows that it is worth of further investigation in the future on the relationships of Pinyin and the development of PA in Chinese and English, and, the relationships of Pinyin and reading in Chinese and English in Chinese bilingual children. 3. Methodology Before conducting the analytical review, I have searched the research literature relevant to Pinyin and PA in ERIC and China Knowledge Resource Integrated Database (CNKI) using key words such as Pinyin, Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, phonological awareness, reading, Chinese children and cross language transfer. The majority of the literature was journal articles written in either English or Chinese published in the past twenty years. About 300 potentially related articles and references in several review papers were further screened. Among them, close to 100 articles were reviewed and recorded in an annotated bibliography. This paper directly quoted and referred
4 to 52 relevant studies on Pinyin and Chinese children’s PA, which are listed in the reference section of this paper with an asterisk. These studies had to meet the following criteria: Studies had to appear in a refereed journal. Studies had to employ correctional or experimental or quasi-experimental design. Studies had to test at least one of the hypotheses that Chinese PA improves Chinese reading, or Chinese PA correlates English PA, or Pinyin improves Chinese PA and reading. In order to have a thorough understanding of issues about Pinyin and as well a critical analysis of studies on Pinyin, we have to define and illustrate what Pinyin is first. An overview of both Chinese phonology and other perspectives of Chinese language provide a background of Pinyin’s rationales and functions. So does a historical review of Pinyin’s origin. The following chapter is to focus on these questions.
5 Chapter Two: Pinyin 1. What is Pinyin? Pinyin is the Romanized phonetic transcription of the Chinese language. It was first developed by a government committee in the People's Republic of China (PRC), and approved by the Chinese government in 1958. Pinyin employs 26 Roman letters in all as its phonetic symbols but as a matter of fact only 25 letters are generally used since the letter ―v‖ is not used in transcribing any words from Chinese but used as transiliteration of words from other languages. Pinyin system reflects the characteristics of the Chinese language. The basic phonetic unit in Chinese is a syllable. One syllable represents phonetically the pronunciation of one Chinese character. The segmental structure of a syllable in Chinese begins with an initial, followed by a final with a tone. Initials are initial consonants, while finals are all possible combinations of a medial (semivowel coming before the vowel), a nucleus vowel, and a coda (final vowel or consonant). Unlike in European languages, initials ( 声 母 ) and finals ( 韵 母 ) — and not consonants and vowels — are the fundamental elements in Pinyin (and most other phonetic systems used to describe the Chinese language). There are 21 initials in Pinyin. The following table (translated and adapted from the corresponding table in Chinese in Lin & Wang (2004)’s Phonetics), which includes each and every initial, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the initial or consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the initial or consonant is produced. Each cell in the table indicates Pinyin symbols. (See Appendix 1 for the corresponding symbols of International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).)
6 Table 1: Initials of Pinyin Bilabial Labio- Alveolar Retroflex dental Plosive Nasal b p Alveolo- Palatal Velar palatal d m t g h n Lateral l approximant Affricate Fricative z f c s zh ch sh r j Approximant q x h y w The conventional order (excluding w and y), derived from the Zhuyin system (Chinese phonetic system used before Pinyin system was created. Zhuyin uses unique symbols but not Roman letters as its own letters and tone marks. See section 4 in this chapter for more information about Zhuyin system.), is as follows: /b/, /p/, /m/, /f/, /d/, /t/, /n/, /l/, /g/, /k/, /h/, /j/, /q/, /x/, /zh/, /ch/, /sh/, /z/, /c/, and /s/. Pinyin has 35 finals. The following table of finals is formed in rows designating nucleus vowels and codas with columns indicating medials. (The table was translated and adapted from the corresponding table in Chinese in Lin & Wang (2004)’s Phonetics. And see Appendix 1 for the corresponding symbols of International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).)
7 Table 2: Finals of Pinyin Medial Nucleus Coda [a] Ø Ea [i] ai [u] ao iao [n] an ian uan [ŋ] ang iang uang Ø e ie uo [i] ei [u] uo iou [n] en in uen ün [ŋ] eng ing ueng iong yi wu yu [ə] Ø i u ia ua ü uai üan üe uei There are additional rules governing Pinyin system as follows: 1. In the syllables of ―知、蚩、诗、日、资、雌、思‖, the final is always ―i‖; therefore, the Pinyin of these characters is as follows: /zhi/, /chi/, /shi/, /ri/, /zi/, /ci/ and /si/. 2. The final [ɑɻ] (而, 二, etc.) is written as /er/. As a suffix, /-r/ is appended to the finals. For instance, 儿童 is as /ertong/ while 花儿 is as /huar/. 3. When the final /e/ is used alone, it is written as /e/. 4. All the finals of the /i/ column, with no initials, should be written as /yi/ 衣, /ya/ 呀，/ye/ 耶，/yao/ 腰，/you/ 忧，/yan/ 烟，/yin/ 因，/yang/ 央，/ying/ 英，/yong/ 雍. All the finals
8 along the /u/ column, with no initials, should be written /wu/ 乌，/wa/ 蛙，/wo/ 窝，/wai/ 歪， /wei/ 威，/wan/ 弯，/wen/ 温，/wang/ 汪，and /weng/ 翁. 5. When the finals of the /ü/ column follow any of the initials /j/, /q/, and /x/, the two dots of /ü/ should be omitted. The Pinyin should be /ju/ 居, /qu/ 区, and /xu/ 虚. However, when the finals follow either /l/ or /n/, it should be written as /lü/ 吕 and /nü / 女. 6. If there is an initial before any of the finals /iou/, /uei/, and /uen/, these finals should be written as /iu/, /ui/, and /un/ respectively. For instance, /niu/ 牛, /gui/ 归 and /lun/ 论. The four tones in Chinese are represented respectively in Pinyin by the following tone marks: /－ / (the first tone), /／/ (the second tone), / / (the third tone) and /﹨/ (the fourth tone). The tone marks are put on top of the nucleus of each syllable. There is no tone mark on the light tone. The following table is an example of the rule of marking tones. (See Appendix 1 for the corresponding symbols of International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).) Table 3: Tones of Pinyin 1st tone 2nd tone 3rd tone 4th tone Light tone 妈 mā 麻 má 马 mǎ 骂 mà 吗 mɑ (mother) (torpid) (horse) (scold) (particle of questions) The additional spelling rule of Pinyin is the dividing mark. When a syllable starting with /a/, /o/ or /e/ follows another syllable in a way which may cause confusion, it is essential to put the dividing mark /’/ in between the two syllables, e.g. /pi’ao/ 皮袄. 2. Chinese phonology The phonological structure of each syllable in Chinese consists of a nucleus (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or triphthong) with an optional onset or coda as well as a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese,
9 where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and / ŋ / can stand alone as a syllable. Since Pinyin is the phonetic transcription based on Chinese Mandarin, there are no consonant only syllables in Pinyin. Across all the spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables that do have codas are restricted to /m/, /n/, / ŋ /, /p/, /t/, /k/, or /ʔ/. In Chinese Mandarin, the only three consonants appearing in the end of a syllable are /-n/ and /- ŋ /, and /-r/, which are used as a grammatical suffix. Chinese syllables ending with any other consonant are either from a non-Mandarin language or dialect such as Cantonese, or minority languages of China. Consonant clusters do not generally occur in either an onset or coda. There are totally around 400 syllables and with tonal variation only about a thousand syllables, which is only about an eighth as many as English (Li & Shi, 1986). (See Appendix 3 for all syllables in Pinyin.) A tone is an important phonetic feature of Chinese, which is, therefore, also considered as a tonal language. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 10 tones. In Chinese Mandarin, there are 4 tones with an exceptional light tone. The first tone is the flat or high level tone, the second tone is the rising or high rising tone, the third tone is the falling-rising or low tone, and the fourth is the falling or high falling tone while the light tone is actually a neutral tone. A very common example used to illustrate the tones in Chinese is seen in the section of What Is Pinyin in this paper. 3. Overview of other perspectives of Chinese language Chinese spoken language Chinese is identified as varieties of dialects or languages by linguists. Spoken Chinese is distinguished by its high level of internal diversity, although all spoken varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. There are between seven and thirteen main regional groups of Chinese (depending on classification scheme), of which the most spoken, by far, is Mandarin (about 850 million native speakers), followed by Wu (90 million native speakers), Cantonese (Yue) (70 million native speakers) and Min (70 million native speakers). Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible. Whereas, Chinese is also classified by some linguists as a macro-language with 13 sub-languages, though the identification of the varieties of Chinese as multiple "languages" or as "dialects" of a single language is a contentious issue. (Huang & Liao, 1997)
10 The standardized form of spoken Chinese is the standard Mandarin, which is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Taiwan as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. Chinese, the standard Mandarin, is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Of the other varieties, Cantonese is common and influential in Guangdong Province of mainland China and Cantonese-speaking overseas communities, and remains one of the official languages of Hong Kong (together with Mandarin and English) and of Macau (together with Mandarin and Portuguese). Hokkien, part of the Min language group, is widely spoken in southern Fujian Province of mainland China, in adjacent Taiwan (where it is known as Taiwanese or Hoklo) and in Southeast Asia (where it dominates in Singapore and Malaysia). (Huang and Liao, 1997) Most research reviewed in this paper was conducted with monolingual and bilingual Chinese children who are either Mandarin or Cantonese speakers. (Also see Appendix 2 for information about use of spoken Chinese in mainland Chinese and other regions.) Chinese written language and Chinese characters The relationship among the Chinese spoken and written languages is rather complex. Its spoken variations evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. The Chinese orthography centers with Chinese characters, Hanzi (汉字), which are written within imaginary square blocks. Chinese characters are morphemes independent of phonetic change. Thus the number ―one‖, /yi/ in Mandarin and /yat/ in Cantonese, share an identical character ―一‖. Unlike English words that are composed of relatively simple units – letters, Chinese characters assembled by unpronounceable strokes in terms of a set of prescribed sequence rules. There are about 214 radicals recognized in the Kangxi Dictionary. Chinese characters evolved over time from earlier forms of hieroglyphs. In this paper, the categorization of characters and the corresponding examples are being used from either Xu (1997)’s Ancient Chinese or Huang & Liao (2007)’s Modern Chinese. Contrary to the idea that all Chinese characters are either pictographs or ideographs, most characters contain phonetic parts, and are composites of phonetic components and semantic radicals. Only a few characters, such as /ren/ 人 (human), /ri/ 日 (sun), /shan/ 山 (mountain), /shui/ 水 (water), may be wholly pictorial in origin. Based on how characters are created, all the characters can be classified into six categories, namely pictograms (象形字), simple ideograms (指事字), compound ideograms (会意字), phonetic semantic compounds (形声字), derivatives (转注字) and phonetic loans (假
11 借字). It is assumed that the early stages of the development of characters were dominated by pictograms, which, however, make up only a small portion of Chinese characters. While characters in this class derive from pictures, they have been standardized, simplified, and stylized for easier writing, and their derivation is therefore not always obvious. Examples include 日 /rì/ for ―sun‖, 月 /yuè/ for ―moon‖, and 木 /mù/ for ―tree‖. It is estimated in Shouwen Jiezi (说文解 字， the first dictionary in Chinese history edited by Xu Shen in A.D. 100) that 4% of characters fell into this category. Simple ideograms, also called simple indicatives, are created either by modifying existing pictograms, or giving direct iconic illustrations. For instance, an ideogram 刃 /rèn/ for ―blade‖ is obtained by modifying 刀 dāo, a pictogram for ―knife‖ with a mark on the edge of the knife to indicate ―blade‖. Examples of direct illustration include 上 /shàng/ meaning ―up‖ and 下 /xià/ meaning ―down‖. Compound ideograms symbolically combine pictograms or simple ideograms to create a new character. For instance, doubling the pictogram 木 /mù/ for ―tree‖ produces 林 /lín/ for ―grove‖, while tripling it produces 森 /sēn/ meaning ―forest‖. Similarly, combining 日 /rì/ for ―sun‖ and 月 /yuè/ for ―moon‖, the two natural sources of light, makes 明 /míng/ meaning ―bright‖. Other commonly cited examples include the character 休 /xiū/ for ―rest‖, composed of the pictograms 人 /rén/ for ―person‖ and 木 /mù/ for ―tree‖, and also 好 /hǎo/ for ―good‖, composed of the pictograms 女 /nǚ/ for ―woman‖ and 子 /zǐ/ for ―infant‖. The number of simple and compound ideograms is relatively small. Derivatives and phonetic loans are another two methods of forming new characters in Chinese which represent a small portion of characters and are rarely employed to create new characters after the early stages. Derivative characters originally represented the same meaning but have bifurcated through orthographic and often semantic drift. For instance, 考 /kǎo/ for ―to verify‖ and 老 /lǎo/ for ―old‖ were once the same character, meaning "elderly person", but detached into two separate characters with different meanings. Phonetic loans cover cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar pronunciation; sometimes the old meaning is then lost completely, as with characters such as 自 /zì/, which has lost its original
12 meaning of ―nose‖ completely and exclusively means ―oneself‖, or 万 /wàn/, which originally meant ―scorpion‖ but is now used only in the sense of ―ten thousand‖. In fact, majority of characters are phonetic semantic compounds. In Shouwen Jiezi of A.D. 100, there were roughly 80% characters of this category. By the time of Kangxi Dictionary (康熙字典) in the year of 1716 it was estimated that phonetic semantic compounds composed 90% of all characters due to the extremely productive use of this technique to extend the pool of Chinese characters. Phonetic semantic compounds usually consist of two parts or radicals: one of a limited set of pictographs, often graphically simplified, which suggests the general meaning of the character, and an
Pinyin and Chinese Children's Phonological Awareness Master of Arts 2010 Xintian Du Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning University of Toronto This paper critically reviewed the literature on the relationships between Pinyin and Chinese bilingual and monolingual children's phonological awareness (PA) and identified areas of
Chinese Pinyin input methods are still based on this model. (chen and Lee, 2000) successfully ap-plied language models to the Chinese Pinyin input method. (Lee, 2003) extended language models fur-ther to disambiguate the Chinese homophone. (Liu and Wang, 2002) built a machine learn-ing approach to solve Chinese Pinyin-to-character
For many Chinese second language learners, pinyin has become an alternative writing system for Chinese language. However, pinyin is just an aid to pronunciation (McBride-Chang et. al., 2005). It was noted that in teaching Chinese as a foreign language the majority of learners seem to embrace pinyin as a substitute of Chinese characters.
components: a) pinyin text segmentation, b) P2C conversion module, c) IR-based association mod-ule. The nub of our work is realizing an engine to stably convert pinyin to Chinese as well as giving reasonable association lists. 2.1 Input Method Engine Pinyin Segmentation For a convenient refer-ence, hereafter a character in pinyin also refers to
Hanyu Pinyin Romanization System I. Introduction Pinyin 拼音, literally meaning "spell out the sound," is currently one of the most commonly used Romanization systems for Mandarin Chinese. It is officially known as Hanyu Pinyin (Hanyu means "the Chinese language"). This system was developed by a government committee in China and was
To do that, you can go to a website that has a Pinyin table, such as the Yoyo Chinese Pinyin Chart, . Learning how to represent Chinese sounds in Pinyin is therefore very important. 5 4 3 2 1 FIRST TONE 5 4 3 2 1 SECOND TONE 5 4 3 2 1 THIRD TONE 5 4 3 2 1 FOURTH TONE 4. THE ULTIMATE GUIDEBOOK TO LEARNING MANDARIN CHINESE
Google Pinyin Input (for typing Chinese characters on your phone) Learn Mandarin Chinese HSK Words - LingoDeer (for Chinese vocabulary) . Yoyo Chinese (for vocabulary, grammar, and cultural lessons) Chinese Buddy (for vocabulary, songs in Chinese) COURSE CALENDAR: Week Content (NB: lessons 1-7 were covered in Chinese 1A & Chinese 1B) 1 .
978-1-62291-110-3 chinese biographies jay chou, without pinyin 17.99 qty _total _ 978-1-62291-035-9 chinese biographies jeremy lin, with pinyin 17.99 qty _total _ 978-1-62291-111-0 chinese biographies jeremy lin, without pinyin 17.99 qty
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