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LongmanEnglishGrammarL G.AlexanderConsultant- R A. Close, CBE
Pearson Education Limited,Edinburgh Gate, Harlow,Essex CM20 2JE, Englandand Associated Companies throughout the worldwww longman com Longman Group UK Limited 1988All rights reserved, no part of the publicationmay be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior written permission of the PublishersDistributed in the United States of America byLongman publishing, New YorkFirst published 1988Twentieth impression 2003BRITISH LIBRARY CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATAAlexander L GLongman English Grammar1 English language - Text-books forforeign speakers1 Title428 2'4PE1128LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATAAlexander, L GLongman English Grammar/L G Alexander, consultant, R A Closep cmIncludes indexISBN 0-582-55892-11 English language - Grammar - 1950- 2 English language Text-books for foreign speakers1 Close, R A II TitlePE1112A431988428 2'4-dc1987-22519 CIPSet in 8 on 9 1/2pt Linotron 202 HelveticaPrinted in ChinaSWTC/20
Louis Alexander was born in London in 1932 He was educated atGodalming Grammar School and London University He taught Englishin Germany (1954-56) and Greece (1956-65), where he was Head ofthe English Department of the Protypon Lykeion, Athens He wasadviser to the Deutscher Volkshochschulverband (1968-78) andcontributed to the design of two important English examinations inGerman Adult Education He was a member of the Council of EuropeCommittee on Modern Language Teaching (1973-78) and is one of theauthors of The Threshold Level (1975) and Waystage (1977) Thesemodern syllabuses are the basis of many communicative languagecourses He is also one of the authors of English Grammatical Structure(1975), a basic syllabus for grading structures for teaching/learningpurposes In 1986-88 he was adviser to the University of CambridgeLocal Examinations Syndicate for the Cambridge Certificate in Englishfor International CommunicationLouis Alexander is best known as the author of innovative works likeFirst Things First (1967), which set new standards in course-design Hehas writtenCourses, such as New Concept English (1967), Look, Listen and Learn(1968-71), Target (1972-74), Mainline (1973-81), Follow Me(1979-80) and Plain English (1987-88)Language Practice Books such as A First Book in Comprehension(1964), Question and Answer (1967) and For and Against (1968)Readers, such as Operation Mastermind (1971), K's First Case (1975),Dangerous Game (1977) and Foul Play (1983)He created the blueprint for the self-study series in modern languages,Survive (1980-83) and has published language courses in the fieldof computer-assisted language learningThe Longman English Grammar is the culmination of more than thirtyyears' work in English as a foreign languageMI
ContentsAdverbs of frequencyAdverbs of degreeIntensifiesFocus adverbsViewpoint adverbs andconnectivesInversion after adverbsIntroduction1 The sentenceSentence word orderThe simple sentenceThe compound sentenceThe complex sentenceIntroductionNoun clausesRelative pronouns and clausesAdverbial clausesParticiple constructions12131624302 NounsOne-word nounsCompound nounsCountable/uncountable nounsNumber (singular and plural)GenderThe genitive3 ArticlesGeneral informationThe indefinite article a/anThe definite article theThe zero article141012343538434951555761654 PronounsGeneral information72Personal pronouns73One76It78Possessive adjectives/pronouns 80Reflexive pronouns82Demonstrative adjectives/pronouns85Indefinite pronouns865 QuantityGeneral introductionParticular quantifiersDistributives6 AdjectivesFormation of adjectivesTypes of adjectives and theirusesThe comparison of adjectives7 AdverbsGeneral informationThe comparison of adverbsAdverbs of mannerAdverbs of placeAdverbs of timeIV8891981061071161221231241271288 Prepositions, adverb particlesand phrasal verbsGeneral informationMovement and positionTimeParticular usesVerb 1529 Verbs, verb tenses, imperativesGeneral information159The sequence of tenses161Simple present162Present progressive164Simple past166Past progressive170Simple present perfect171Simple past perfect174Present/past perfect progressive 176Simple future178Future progressive180Future perfect simple/progressive181The'going to'-future181Other ways of expressing thefuture183Future-in-the-past184The imperative18410 Be, Have, DoBe, Have, Do as auxiliary verbsBe as a full verbThere beVerbs related in meaning to beHave ('possess') and have gotHave (something other than'possess')Do as a full verb20120411 Modal auxiliaries and relatedverbsGeneral characteristicsAbilityPermission and prohibitionCertainty and possibilityDeduction207212215218221187188194196198
Offers, requests, suggestionsWishes wish and if onlyPreference would rather/wouldsoonerAdvisability, duty, necessityLack of necessity, prohibitionHabitDareOther uses of modal auxiliaries22222422622723123423623712 The passive and the causativeGeneral information about form241Uses of the passive243The causative24613 Questions, answers, negativesYes/No questions negativestatementsYes/No questions and Yes/Noshort answersAlternative negative formsNegative questions and Yes/Noshort answersTag questions and Yes/No shortanswersStatement questions and Yes/NoanswersEcho tagsAdditions and responsesQuestion-word questions formand useParticular question-words andtheir usesQuestion-word questionssubject-questionsQuestions about alternativesEmphatic questions with ever14 Conditional sentencesGeneral informationType 1 conditionalsType 2 conditionalsType 3 conditionalsOther uses of if and similarconjunctionsWill and would after 27928128315 Direct and indirect speechDirect speech284Say, tell and ask286Indirect statements reportingverb in the present288Indirect statements with tensechanges289Indirect statements with mixedtense sequences293Indirect Yes/No questions293Indirect question-word questions 295Indirect subject-questions296Uses of the to-infinitive in indirectspeech296When we use indirect speech29716 The infinitive and the -ing formThe bare infinitiveThe infinitive with or without toBare infinitive or -ing form?The to-infinitiveVerb ( noun/pronoun) to-infinitiveVerb to-infinitive or (that-)clauseAdjective to-infinitiveNoun to-infinitiveThe -ing formVerb -ing formAdjectives and nouns -ingformPrepositions -ing formTо-infinitive or -ing 193221 Transitive/intransitive verbs 322 2 Nounendings 322 3 Nouns/verbs distinguished bystress 322 4 Nouns not normally countable 3225 Partitives 322 6 Collective nouns of 323 7Uses of this/that 323 8 Adjectives formed withsuffixes 323 9 The adjective 324 10 ed/ ingadjectival participles 324 11 Adjectives easilyconfused 324 12 Comparatives/superlativesconfused and misused 324 13 Expressionswith as adjective as 324 14 Adjectives/adverbs with same form 325 15 Adverbs withtwo forms 325 16 -ly intensifies 325 17Viewpoint adverbs 326 18 Connecting wordsand phrases 326 19 Negative adverbs 326 20Common prepositions 327 21 to noun and at noun 327 22 to noun and in noun 32723 to noun and at or in noun 327 24 Daysmonths, seasons 327 25 Particularprepositions, particles and contrasts 328 26Prepositional phrases 334 27 Adjectives andrelated nouns prepositions 335 28 Verb preposition (transitive) non-idiomatic 335 29Verb object preposition 336 30 Verb preposition (transitive) idiomatic 336 31 Nounsformed from verb particle 337 32 Verb particle (transitive) non-idiomatic 337 33 Verb particle (transitive) idiomatic 339 34 Fixedexpressions with verbs 340 35 Nouns formedfrom verb particle 340 36 Verb particle(intransitive) idiomatic 340 37 Verb particle preposition (idiomatic) 341 38 Stative verbs341 39 Regular verbs 341 40 Irregular verbs342 41 Adjectives/nouns combining with be(temporary behaviour) 344 42 Have, give takecombinations 344 43 Do and makecombinations 344 44 Adjectival combinations345 45 Reporting verbs 346 46 Verbs to,that or О clause 346 47 Numbers 347 48Points of time 349 49 Nationality words 350Index351v
AcknowledgementsA grammar takes shape over a long period of time, evolving in versionafter version an author's ideas must be challenged repeatedly for thework to develop it is a process which does not end with publication,for, of course, a grammar can never be complete or completedI have been privileged to have the many versions of my manuscriptread over a period of years by one of the foremost grammarians of ourtime R A Close His detailed comments have helped me to shape myideas and realize my aims I owe him a debt of gratitude that cannot bemeasured I am equally indebted to my editorial and researchassistant, Penelope Parfitt, for her invaluable commentaries and for thearduous compilation of listsI would also like to thank Philip Tregidgo and Bill Lillie for sharing withme some of their original insights into the workings of English Myparticular thanks are due to Michael Palmer whose vigorous andincisive commentary helped me to cut the manuscript down to anacceptable lengthOnly a comparison of the successive drafts of this work with the finaltext could reveal how great is my debt to these commentators - thoughthey certainly will not agree with many of the decisions I have made1take full responsibility for the book that has finally emerged and lay soleclaim to its imperfectionsA grammar taxes the resources of a publisher as much as it strains theabilities of an author I would like to thank my publishers for their faithand unstinted support while the work was in progress Specifically, mythanks are due to my publisher, Michael Johnson, for his constructiveadvice and for the exercise of his formidable managerial skills, to PaulPrice-Smith for designing the work with such zest and imagination, toJoy Marshall for her superlative editing and amazingly retentivememory, to Tina Saunders and Joy Cash for photocopying, collatingand dispatching recurring mountains of paper, to Ken Moore of thecomputer department and Clive McKeough of the productiondepartment for resolving the innumerable technical problems involvedin computer-setting from disksConstantly rather than finally, I depend on the patient support of mywife, Julia, who shared with me not only her own acute linguisticinsights, but beyond that, the exhilaration and despair which such workinevitably bringsL G AVI
IntroductionAims and levelGrammatical descriptions of English which are addressed to learnersare often oversimplified and inaccurate This is the inevitable result oflack of time in the classroom and lack of space in course books andpractice books Badly expressed and inaccurate rules, in turn, becomeenshrined in grammar books directed at teachers and students Themisrepresentation of English grammar gives a false view of thelanguage, perpetuates inaccurate 'rules', and results in errors incommunication It is against this background that the Longman EnglishGrammar has been writtenThe primary aim of this book is to present a manageable coverage ofgrammar at intermediate and advanced levels, which will serve twopurposes1 To present information which can be consulted for reference2 To suggest the range of structures that a student would need to befamiliar with receptively and (to a lesser extent) productively to beable to communicate effectivelyIn other words, the book aims to be a true pedagogical grammar foreveryone concerned with English as a foreign language It attempts toprovide reasonable answers to reasonable questions about theworkings of the language and to define what English as a ForeignLanguage is in terms of grammarRationaleMany learners approach the study of English already in possession of afair knowledge of the grammar of their own languages They are theproduct of their own learning traditions, which have often equippedthem with a 'grammatical consciousness' Native-speaking teachers ofEnglish gradually acquire the grammatical consciousness of theirstudents through the experience of teaching, so that they, too, learn'English as a foreign language' This book assumes the existence ofsuch a consciousness The grammar has been written, as it were,through the eyes of the user It has been informed by the commonerrors made by learners and as a result has been written as preciselyas possible for their requirements This awareness of the learner will beapparent in the way the book has been organized and written, and inthe use of technical termsOrganizationComplex forms of organization, often found in modern grammars, havebeen avoided Before they begin the study of English, many studentsare familiar with the idea of sentence formation and word order and theVII
idea of 'parts of speech' the use of nouns, verbs, prepositions, and soon And this is the pattern this grammar follows A glance at theContents pages will give the user an overview of the way the book hasbeen organizedThe main chapters are followed by an Appendix, which contains usefullists (e g of phrasal verbs) that would otherwise clutter the text andmake it unreadable Or they contain detailed notes on e gprepositions, dealing with such problems as the similarities anddifferences between over and above, which there is not normally roomfor in a grammar of this sizeStyleWriting about language is difficult because the object of study(language) is also the medium through which it is discussed There hasbeen a conscious avoidance of passive constructions so that thedescriptions of how the English language works are as simple anddirect as possible, given the complexity of the subjectThe usual sequence in each section is to present form first, followed byuse Paradigms, where they occur, are given in full, in traditional style,as this may be the way students have already encountered them intheir own languages These are often followed by notes which focus onparticular problems 'Rules' are descriptive, rather than prescriptive,and are written as simply and accurately as possibleTechnical termsThe book defines common technical terms, such as noun, verb, etcthat are probably familiar to the user While it avoids complex terms, itdoes introduce (and define) terms which are necessary for an accuratedescription of what is happening The index uses the symbol D to referthe user to the point where such terms are defined An intelligentdiscussion of English requires the use of terms like determiner, stativeverb, the causative, the zero article, and so on If we avoid such terms,descriptions will be unnecessarily wordy, repetitive and/or inaccurateFor example, to speak of 'the omission of the article' in e g 'Life isdifficult' is a misrepresentation of what happens We actively use thezero article here, we do not 'omit' anythingRetrieving informationPage headings and numbered subsections indicate at every point whatfeatures of the language are being discussed Users can make theirown connexions through the extensive cross-referencing system, orthey can find what they want in the detailed indexEase of useAttempting to write a grammar that is up-to-date, accurate andreadable is one thing, making a book out of the material is quiteanother Through careful presentation and design, we have tried tocreate a work that will be a pleasure to use We also hope that it willprove to be a reliable and indispensable companion to anyoneinterested in the English languageVIII
Pronunciation and spelling tableconsonantskeywordpbvowelskeyother commonspellingspen happyback rubberttea butter walked doubtdday ladder called couldi:wordsheep field team key sceneamoebaiship savage guilt systemwomenk keycool soccer lockschool chequeegcalf (AmE)getbigger ghostʧcheermatch naturequestion celloʤ jump age edge soldier gradualf fat coffee cough physicshalfvviewof navyθ thingðthenssooncity psychology messscene listenz zerowas dazzleexample (/gz/)ʃfishingsure station tensionVICIOUS chevronʒpleasure vision rougehhotwholem sumhammer calm bombnsunfunny know gnawŋsungsinklledballoon battlerredmarry wriggle rhubarbjyet onion use new Europewwetone when queen (/kw/)x lochother commonspellingsbed any said bread bury friendæbadplaid laugh (AmE)ɑ: fathercalm heartlaugh (BrE) bother (AmE)opotwatch cough (BrE)laurel (BrE)ɔ: caughtball board draw fourfloor cough (AmE)ʊputu:wood wolf couldbootmove shoe groupflew blue rudeʌcutə:birdsome blood doesburn fern worm earnjournaləcupboard the colour actornation danger asleepeimakepray prey steak veingaugeəʊ note soap soul grow sew toeɑi bite pie buy try guide sighaʊoinowspout ploughboypoison lawyeriəhere beer weir appear fierceʊəpoortour sureplayerlowertiretoweremployerɛə there hair bear bare their prayereiəəʊəaiəaʊəoiəfrom Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
Symbols and conventionsAmEAmerican EnglishBrEBritish EnglishNot * *likely student error0zero article( )optional element/ /phonetic transcription[ ][ App]Dcross-referenceAppendix referencedefinition of technical terms(used only in the index)' (as in 'progress) stress mark
1 The sentenceSentence word order1.1Inflected and uninflected languagesMany modern European languages are inflected. Inflected languagesusually have the following characteristics1 Nouns have endings which change depending on whether they are,for example, the subject or object of a verb2 There are complex agreements between articles, adjectives andnouns to emphasize the fact that a noun is, for example, subject orobject, masculine or feminine, singular or plural The more inflecteda language is (for example, German or Greek), the more complexits system of endings ('inflexions')3 Verbs 'conjugate', so that it is immediately obvious from theendings which 'person' (first, second, third) is referred to andwhether the 'person' is singular or pluralEnglish was an inflected language up to the Middle Ages, but themodern language retains very few inflexions Some survive, like thegenitive case in e g lady's handbag where lady requires 's to showsingular possession, or like the third person in the simple present tense(/ work He/She/lt works) where the -s ending identifies the thirdperson, or in the comparative and superlative forms of many adjectives{nice nicer nicest) There are only six words in the English languagewhich have different subject and object forms I/me he/him she/herwe/us they/them and who/whom This lack of inflexions in Englishtempts some people to observe (quite wrongly) that the language has'hardly any grammar' It would be more accurate to say that English nolonger has a grammar like that of Latin or German, but it has certainlyevolved a grammar of its own, as this book testifiesIn inflected languages we do not depend on the word order tounderstand which noun is the subject of a sentence and which is theobject the endings tell us immediately In English, the order of words isessential to the meaning of a sentence We have to distinguish carefullybetween the subject-group and the verb-group (or predicate) Thepredicate is what is said about the subject, i e it is all the words in asentence except the subjectsubject groupThe dogThe manverb group (predicate)bit the manbit the dogAs these examples show, a change in word order brings with it afundamental change in meaning, which would not be the case if thenouns had endings This means that English is far less flexible in itsword order than many inflected languages
1 The sentence1.2The sentence: definitions of key termsNo discussion of the sentence is possible without an understanding ofthe terms finite verb, phrase, clause and sentenceA finite verb must normally have- a subject (which may be 'hidden') e gHe makes They arrived We knowOpen the door (i e You open the door)- a tense e g He has finished She will write They succeededSo, for example, he writes she wrote and he has written are fini
The Longman English Grammar is the culmination of more than thirty years' work in English as a foreign language MI. Contents Introduction 1 The sentence Sentence word order 1 The simple sentence 4 The compound sentence 10 The complex sentence 12 Introduction 12 Noun clauses 13
English grammar Thi. s book is based on the Longman English Grammar and the grammatical information in it is all drawn from this work. Longman English Grammar Practice has been designed to stand on its own. Students wh o requir furthee r grammatica informatiol cann refe tro the Longman English Grammar. How the materia ils organized Longman English
Grammar Express 79 Center Stage 79 Longman Advanced Learners’ Grammar 80 An Introduction to English Grammar 80 Longman Student Grammar of Spoken & Written English 80 Longman Grammar of Spoken & Written English 80 Grammar Correlation Chart KEY BOOK 1 BOOK 2 BOOK 3 BOOK 4 BOOK 5 BOOK 6 8. Grammar.indd 76 27/8/10 09:44:10
- V. Evans, Round-Up (English Grammar Practice), Longman, 1995 - M. Carling and S. Jervis, Grammar Time 4, Longman, 2003 - S. Jervis, Grammar Time 5, Longman, 2003 - M. Carling, Grammar Time 6, Longman, 2003. 4 EXERCISES 1. Complete the sentences with the correct passive form of the verbs in brackets. Use the Present
A grammar of contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972. Pp. Xii I,I20. The dust jacket proclaims that 'A grammar of contemporary English is the fullest and most comprehensive synchronic description of English ever written'. If 'synchronic' is construed so as to rule out Jespersen's Modern English grammar on
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6. Essential English Grammar by Raymond Murphy,Cambridge University Press, 7. Common Errors in English by M.Thomas, Lotus Press, New Delhi, 2006 8. Basic English Usage by Michael Swan, ELBS/OUP, 1989 9. Communication Skills for Engineers by Mishra ,Ist Edition, Pearson Longman 10. Basic English Dictionary by Longman Longman Ist Edition, Pearson .
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Araling Panlipunan. Ikalawang Markahan- Modyul 2: Mga Isyu sa Paggawa . II . Paunang Salita Ang Self-Learning Module o SLM na ito ay maingat na inihanda para sa ating mag-aaral sa kanilang pagaaral sa tahanan. Binubuo ito ng iba’t ibang bahagi na gagabay sa - kanila upang maunawaan ang bawat aralin at malinang ang mga kasanayang itinakda ng kurikulum. Ang modyul na ito ay may inilaang Gabay .
