F. - ERIC
DOCUMENT 'RESUME.ED,415-060.UD 022 232f.AUTHORtrpEBruMberg,.Stephan T.Going to AMeripaGoing to Sohooi: TheIMMig;rafit-PUhliI'tchool-Eficounter inItirnei-the-tentury,New York City. (A. Work inProgress.).PUB DATEFeli.82XOTE75p:IPaper presented at the Anftual Meeting of theAmeriCan Educational Research Association (New York,NY, March, 1982).'.,.,; -:,E1?S,PRICEMF01/Pd03 Plus ,Poktage.DESCRIPTORS*AcculturationvAd3ustment (to Environment);;CulturalPluralism; Educational,Attitudesf *Educational 7-.-- 7*----Change; Educational History; *Educational, Objectives;IDENTIFIERS*Elementary See'ondary Education; *Immigrants; *JewsT*OutdoMes Of Education; PoliticalEducation; School Role; Social Integration;74Socioeconomic Influences; State Legislation; UnitedStates History*N/*Oitf:Itiltie,(New York)0ABSTRACT1ThiS4apor explores the effects on both immigrants-and schools oZ the historical encounter between New York City's.public schools and Ea0 European Jew: h immigrants to the city. The-is*iffants' backgrote their reasons for migrating, and thelifestyles that emer d froM their efforts, to adapt to American lifeate described. The paper-examines, the educational experiences andexpectations that the Jews-brought with them, the factorsthat; influenced them 'to ibnd their''Children-to public schools inmmrWhelMing nUmbers, and.immi,grant students' perceptions Of howschOOls changed them. It'is.SuggeSted that WW1 the incoTpoXation ofnumexoUs,Jewthiimmigrantsmmgrantsinto-the New York City publicIsdhools, theschOola 'increasingly took on the task of soc-ial-transformatiOn.toAinei.icanize the alien poor,cand in-Athe process underwent\transformation themselves by broadening their scope, beg ming'moreractical in orientation, and reflecting a culture that encouragedp blic conftrmity but generally tolerated private diveraiti. Within- : t hatjEllm,-iminigrant Jews are perceived to have emerged as adiverse group, comprising ,some who cut'all ties to-the traditionalcommunity r others who sought reaffirmation of tradition, and still )others who Sought to synthesize the secular world of theischools andthe spiritual world of their tions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made*.*from the,original *******************************.a
(A Work in prbgress)GOING T0 AMERICA'', GOING.TO SCHOOL:The Immigrant-N.11)11c School Encounter,In Turn -of -'the- century New York CitybyaU.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION,EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION.CENTER I ERICIbens.;" rStephan F. BrumbergBrooklyn College' of C.U.N.Y.8document has been reproduced asreceived from the perton or organizationoriginating it.Li Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality.Points of view or opinions stated in this docu.ment do not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy."PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BYFebruary, 1982511171,1AA1 R(UA re)EV,GI,TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."sV,Limited Distribution.This work may not bereproduced withoutsiopermission oftheAauthor.Rj)1
( A Work in Progress)GOING TO AMERICA,.GO/NG TO, SCHOOL:The Immigrantu-Public School. Encounterin Turn-of-the-century,,New York Cityby.'qtephan P.BrambergBrooklyn College.of C.U.N.Y.Everything that frees men from their actual state, topens their eyes to.varied scenes, hateXpands theirideas, that enlightens them, that rouses,them, leadsthem in the long run, to the good and the true ;1I. IntroductionBetween the .assassination of .Czar Alexandei,II, in March of1881,*and the outbreak of World War I,-in Atigust of 1914, welloverone and one-half million East European Jews emigrated to the5United States, over twothirds of whom settled in New York City.2The-Jews, who represented an insignificant proportion of thepopulation in 1880, constituted nearly '30% of the 5.6 millioninNew Yorkers1920.population waforeign borii or children of immigrants.3In that same year nearly 70%; of the City's.A004!Mirroring the rapid growth of the City's population, NewYork's schools experienced volatile growth.In 1881 enrollmentsin the school districts:which would later be merged to form theNew York City school system totaled less than 250,000.In 1898,the year theLCity of'Greater New York'was formed, William Maxwellassumed the superintendency of a system with nearly one-halfmillion pupils, and by 1914 enrollmenthad grown to almost
-2-.900,000 studehts.4The ability to create a system of schools that could absorb,cso many students in such a short tine is all the more impressivewhen we consider the changing composition of the student population.The-most-Thot-iceable-ohange-w:b Llie displacement of ndtive bornAmericans, Germans and Irish: by.4Russian Jewd and Southern Italians.41.The encounter- between immigrant and School at this criticaljuncture, helped to shape the immigrant generation.and profoundly,influenced the deveippment,of New York's pdblic scfiools.paper will explore how andThis)encounter took place'for theCity's. JeWish immigrants, and the effects it had upon bothimmigrantsand schools.II. Superintendent Maxwt-11 and the Mission of the Public SchoolsThe school system which evolved under the leadership of,.William Maxwell, p3rmerly head of the independent Brooklyn City1Pschools,' had as a central mission the integration of alien youthinto American society.II-was his '''responsibility to begin thework of assimilating Lralien 'childred7into AmeriCan citizenship."5And many believed that the safety of American institutions dependedupon the school's ultimate success in this venture.Maxwell nimself strongly believ4d that the schools had toserve social ends in addition to traditional narrowly instructionalgoals.In his view, the schoolbrings all social classes together in a common effort forimprovement. It accustoms people of different creeds'end
-:3-,,different\national tiaditions to live together on terms bfpeace and-mutual good will. It is the melting.pot whichconverts the chil.gen of th immigrahis ()fall races andlanguaqes'into sturdy, inde endent American citizens. Itis the characteristic Ameri an educational.' institution.?And the public 'elementary school Dyad prospered, according to Maxwell,a tbecause over the preceding centurthere had been a gradual butdecided "transfer- of the education4of our children from schools41.'. by the churches, to' schools controlled and supported by the,State." This was coupled with "a-gradual acceptance of the.'public school . not merely for young children or for poor children,but for all children up to eighteen-years of age.Free educatiohis no longer thought ofas a charity or a privilege, but as one ofthe people's rights."8However, if the public schools were to accomplish thp,aftlitiousgoals identified. by MaxwellMaxof enhancing equal opportunity, identifying,t).,.and developing latent intellectual talents, creating a common groundfor all social classes, and transforming immigrants into "independentAmerican citizens," several. conditions had to be.; met simultaneously:immigrants had to voluntarily.send'their children to school, theschools they attended had to be "public," the municipality had toprovide funds for education (implying an acceptance by the citizenrythat education was a legitiMate public function which had highpriority among competing demands for public funds), and the pro.fessional educat4 ion staff had to have the competence to deiign and141implement aneducational system which was able effectively toabsorb the 'growIng and altering student population.5
.-,The primaryoncerrs of this paper are the first two conditions--why immigrants\e,Lt their children to school, and especially. topublic schools.,It will confine itself to East European JewishS.,immigrants.14,This group,'which'sent few ,pupils to public schools.( and represented a small fra.ction of the city's population ) in1881, comprised about one-third of-the public school's studentpopulation by 1914.?0In order 'to determine why 'this group entered public schoolsin overwhelming numbers, and to'explore the effects, if any, schooland immigrant had upon one another, four basic questions will be'.raised:1. What educational experiences4concepts ana expectationsdid.the East European Jews bring with them?2. 'Whyid they send their Children to public, secular schools?113.How dldiimmigrant students perceive themselves changed bythe schools?4. How did the incorporation of Jewish immigrants into thepublic schools affect the Schools themselves?III.:The New ArrivalsA. Why They Camec.Following the assassination of Alexander II, in March of 1881,and 'the ascention to the throne of the repressive Alexander III,the impoverished Jews of t1ie Pale of Settlement (western Russiaand Russian Poland) became the victiMs,of a series of harsh pogroms,0
-5-4.'V4commencing in Elizabethgad (April 15, 1881), spreading to theUkrainian countryside and then to Kiev .(April 26) and reachingpreviously "ltberal".0dessa on.May 3, 1881.\\A second wave ofpogroms raged in the summer of 1881 d11,. the year closed with bloodyattacks in Warsaw. 10wasThe long awaited official government responsee infamous May Laws of 1882, which in effect,aceztheplefsblgme for the atrocitieS on the victims.These "Temporary 'Rules,"which lasted decades, prohibited Jews from settling outside thetowns and townlets and from buying land in those''areas.Theyalso prevented Jews from doing business on Sundays or Christian4,3i4holidays.Added to Jewish religious bans on conducting businesson Saturday6 and Jewish holidays, it made the task of 'earning aliving in the severely overcrowded towns of the Pale a very difficult matter.Further, entrance to government schools, which hadbeen a privilege granted under Alexander II, was severely proscribed,election to local councils denied, but enforced conscriptionrigorously impleMented.11The repressive climate in Russia and Russian Poland,sfollowingupon aq3eriod of relative.liberalify, served as a spur to many toemigrate.As Dubnow, the great historian of Russian Jewry, has1noted, emigration while passive, was the only:effective protestthe individual (could make against her powerful oppresSor.And"the Jewish emigration from Russia, to the United Stated served asa baromeeer of the persecutions, endured by. the Jews in the landof bondage."127
40The initial trickle of emigrants, beginning in 1881, establisheda defined course and the exodus began to flow in mounting waves.By 1910 over 1.1 million Russian Jews had emigrated to.the UnitedStates, with many others settling in Western Europe, England andPalestine.But the United States was the primary goal."While it is clear that pull factorS attracted 'migrants tothe United States (economic copportunity, "religious tolerance, civilequality, freedom from a repressive military draft, educational/opportunities, political liberty), these factors served to direct-the massive movement of pebple fleeing from Eastern Europe ratherthan incite the outward move 'itself.It was the intolerable politicaland economic conditions coupled with fear of physical attack andmob violence which ultimatelyovercame the inertial'force ofcenturies of habitation in a loved and familiar environment.14'Once in'moiion, once the path was cut, the great migration swepthundreds of thousands into its currents.Only the World War couldtemporarily halt the flow, and only the closing of the gates to*the United States with the immigration laws of 1921 and 1924could reduce the flow to a trickle'.An early studersf of Jewish immigration, writing'in 1914,persuasively argued that "in the Jewish moverilt we are dealing,not with an immigration, but with a migration.What wearewitnessing to-day and for these thirty years LT880-19167 is aJewish migration of a kind and degree almost witilaut parallel Inthe history of the Jewish people."15
4-7-With nearly one in every three Jews of Eastern' Europe ultimatelymigrating to the United States wAhin the.cOurse of one generation,the Jewish migration featurel, movement of whole family groups, arelatively equal number of males and females, skilled artisans andlaborers, formerly affluent and habitually poor.Within a comparatively short time, the Jewish emigres here-in contrast with other immigrant groups-- had the ingredients,of a practically complete-society: All generations, allclasses and nearly every occupation typical of a normalsocial group were represented.16.The migration of a whole community, leaving aside the intriguing4question as to whetherit was truly representative of the communitywhich. existed in Europeat the outset of mass migration, permitted4and perhaps encouraged an attempt to reestablish the Old Worldcommunity in the New.While we will discuss the attempt,Abelow,we should note that the transposed community members brought with,them all of the internal conflicts, strains, arguments, phildsophical/political /ideological divisioA and regional customs, dialects andantagonisms, now to be worked out in a new environment.Whereasin the Pale, external forces and the anchoring weight of centuriesof residence in a given place favored the-traditionalists, theanti-secularists, the isolationists and the,parochialists, withinthe American context, the external environment and absence of place-,specific precedentthe secularists,fted the balance in favor of the "enlightened,"ne integrationists and the universalists.Ineffect, we becomt witness to the working. out of the painful and(-!)
disjointing process of the emancipation of the Jews of Eastern4-ftEurope on American soil.The public sqhoOlS cf New York, as weshallsee, came to figure prominantly in the working out of thisdrama.B.The Immigrants' Conceptions of EducationWhat educational experiences, concepts and expectations didthe East European Jewish immigrant; bring with them to the United'States? Traditionally they conceived of learning as a ieligioilsact and as a 'prerequisite.to leading a full .and just life.LearAwas almost wholly concerned with discovering how to lead one's life0e.in-accord with(the precepts and laws of God, as set forth'in HisTorah (the Pentateuch), as interpreted by the great rabbis of oldand recorded in the collection of commentaries knolonas the Talmud.Secular knowledge was acquired informally,doing, but not through.formal study.If one wished to' learn a skill or trade, one wasapprenticed, not sent to a school.1Because of the gender-related role differences encoded intraditional Jewish religious practices, the education of fema)eswas limited or wholly neglected.the Hebrew alphabet and aSome, not all, women learnedprayers, many learned to read Yiddish(or jargon, asit was called)but rarely did-a woman advance tothe study of Talmud.Malesread Hebrew and recite th(on th'e other hand, had to learn toextensive prayers of the traditionalliturgy, or they would be unable to discharge their holy obligations.Many, in fact, became quite knowledgeable in the extensive religiousA10
f'sliterature, 'which they were expected to study throughout their1.,lives and from which they were to seek.guaidance in the very conductof their lives.f(The religious and devotional nature of tradtional learying\is captured in'the following excerpted dialogue between melamed.,.,-.(teacher') and child which was recited at the cermonymarkirig thee\;beginning of the study of th6 Pentateuch (Hebrew Bible), whichoccurred at about the age o) 5 or 6, after the child had masteredA.the mechanical reading of Hebrew:Melamed: Would you first like to recite scittlething of.the(Torah?Child:Of Course,'thatis what I was created for:D.) 7I, ,,.,Traditional educationsthem.,did-not oc,r in "schools" as we know,.,A child wat placed .with aMelamed whO :;an a "cheder" where Al'.he taught a group o.children/ (usually all boys) in one/loom\,in his own hose, and'at,times assisted by a helper.18ilustually)oiAp,individual,.76heder" was not part of.a larger- integrated educational system-,and a child might be placed i0 --A,t(.:several "ch'qdarimg during the course.:ofhisstutli9s.Vv1.u4mining the.\ Finances of the family played a part in determiningce-\.ment of a chit d as well),la-.Education was private; each melamed. was.Ihis own entrepreneur.a fee,however, were generally meagerand mostldlammdim were impove ished. 19.Even with low school fees,.,.there were poor ftamiliestin the community whO were unable to pray.These. pauper students were either educated by the community inoa
0.9'-ro-specially supported "Talmud Tbrahs" (sc hooln for the study of Torah),or community funds were dispensed to pair the.fees for such a childto attend a private "cheder."But all had to be edutated--at leastall males, rich or poor, so that ,their religious 'obligationscould be effectively discharged.oThe best students could progress.from'cheder (roughlyithe elementrary level)' to yeshivah (higher level studies) to continue their,.:religious -legal ethical- theological- philosophical studies under thetsupervision of rabbis v4thhigh reputations for learning.Some%.yeshivot were large and relatively structured institutions oele3rning0t.Most, gowever,,were infOrmal 'study center; where learners and-highly.\.esteemed teachers came together to "lead pious lives of study and"contemplation. Those who ultimately came to be recognised by theirpeers as wise and high/.y competent interpreters of religious textand its attendant law, became the neX.genexation of severed teachers.20Traditional Jewish educatiOn, whilestill dominant at the time**the great wave of emigration commenced,'had come under heavy attackAand no.longer could claim universal support in the Jewish community.As early as the 1840's and 1850's the ideae.of the Jewish Enlighten.ment had spread pO,themast from its place of birth in 16th centuryGermany.This movement to fuse Jewish religious beliefs with westernenlightenment thinking profoundly affected a small but significamtnumber of intellectuals.These maskilim, ( lovers of enlightenment),1.followers of the movement known as the Haskalah (the "Enlightenment"were critical of what they 'saw as the parochial,. iuperstitious practices
711of traditional Judaism.In the words of Eliakum Zunser, the mostpopular Yiddish poet and songsterof the'second half of. the 19thcentury, the great.mass of Jews hadsurrounded itself with a thick enclosure of, fanaticism and'sUperstition; no ray of enlightenmene7could enter here. Theentire Jewry of Russia, Roumania,LandGaliciaJthus lived apart;separated and isolated from the rest of the world. Nothingforeign could hake entered here:, This isolation served theJews as a protection against undesirable influences from theirimmediate Gentile neighbors, who were then on the very lowestLevel of spiritual development.' Our people dreaded suchinfluences, for ' they could not but be injurious, both inspiritual and material respects.21VHowever, to espouse the views of the Haskaah was dangerousand could 14,being branded an-apostate and perhapsothrown' into the hands of the military-recruiter. 'Nonetheless,I.sometake up the study-of modern science and the history andphildsophy of the west.-6 :.4The aim of these maskilim wasfirst of all to break dowb the thick walls of superstitionand fanaticism-which for entire centuries had hemmed in theRussian Jewry from all -sides. The first pioneets who undertook to weed ff. theJewish garden its thorns, and to plant'therein the tree of'knowledge, were the Jews of the large'cities.Those of the small towns still remained fixed intheir old fanaticism. 22.As Zunser appreciated, however, it was not just the ropes oftraditton which bound the Jews to their old beliefs and practices,Obut:rigid external constraints and prohibitions.For many long centuFiese Russian Jewj7 had endured an"intellectual" fast: The government had debarred them fromthe world's culture.They were
of ndtive born. Americans, Germans and Irish: by.4Russian Jewd and Southern Italians. 41. The encounter- between immigrant and School at this critical juncture, helped to shape the immigrant generation.and profoundly, influenced the deveippment,of New York's pdblic scfiools. This).paper will explore how and. encounter took place'for the. City's.
Eric Clapton Journeyman Eric Clapton Me & Mr. Johnson Eric Clapton One More Car, One Mor Eric Clapton Pilgrim Eric Clapton Reptile Eric Clapton Sessions for Robert J [C Eric Clapton Unplugged Eric Clapton Riding with the King Eric Clapton & B.B. King At Last! Etta James Eurythmics : Greatest Hits Eurythmics American Tune Eva Cassidy Eva .
ERIC A. GREENLEAF ERIC J. JOHNSON VICKI G. MORWITZ EDITH SHALEV* * Order of authorship is alphabetical. Eric A. Greenleaf is Professor of Marketing, Leonard N. Stern School of Business, New York University, 40 West 4th Street, Suite 813, New York, NY 10012-1126 (egreenle@stern.nyu.edu). Eric J.
A Bell for Ursli Carigiet, Alois "Slowly, Slowly, Slowly", Said the Sloth Carle, Eric Do you want to be my friend? Carle, Eric Does a kangaroo have a mother, too? Carle, Eric From head to toe Carle, Eric Mister Seahorse Carle, Eric Pancakes, Pancakes! Carle, Eric Ten little rubbe
MILLION DOLLAR INTERVIEW WITH DARIN KIDD BY ERIC WORRE Eric: Hey everybody. This is Eric Worre and welcome to Network Marketing Pro. I’m here with Darin Kidd. Darin, how are you doing? Darin: I’m doing great. Eric: Darin has come to share some ideas with us. Darin is
Feb 16, 2021 · 3/2/17: Eric S. will take business cards, so he can update list. 6/15/17: Eric S. will work on the list. 10/18/17: Eric S. will cleanup list and send to Caltrans. 2/15/18: Ongoing item. Remove Darren and add Summer. 9/20/18: send to Eric and he will update. 01/16/20: Eric asked mem
friend, Bill Martin Jr. Eric Carle has been awarded numerous honors throughout the years; most recently the 2003 Laura Ingalls Wilder Award from the Association for Library Service to Children. For more information on Eric Carle visit www.eric-carle.com and the Eric Carle Museum of Picture Book Art at www.picturebookart.org.
Carle, Eric. The Art of Eric Carle. Philomel: 1992. Includes an autobiography, photographs, essays and critical appreciations of his work, and reproductions of many illustrations. Videos: Eric Carle: Picture Writer. Produced by Searchlight Films, Director: Rawn Fulton. 1993. Interview with Eric Carle; demonstration of paper painting and collage.
Mieux publier la science IRD, Montpellier, 15 février 2018 Eric LICHTFOUSE CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence Eric.Lichtfouse@inra.fr
