EXCERPTED FROM Understanding The Contemporary Caribbean
EXCERPTED FROMUnderstanding theContemporary Caribbeanedited byRichard S. Hillman andThomas J. D’AgostinoCopyright 2003ISBNs: 1-55587-983-7 hc 1-55587-959-4 pb1800 30th Street, Ste. 314Boulder, CO 80301USAtelephone 303.444.6684fax 303.444.0824This excerpt was downloaded from theLynne Rienner Publishers websitewww.rienner.comi
ContentsList of IllustrationsPrefaceixxiii1 Introduction Richard S. Hillman2 The Caribbean: A Geographic Preface Thomas D. Boswell119Defining the Caribbean 19Climate and Weather Patterns in the Caribbean 23Landforms in the Caribbean 26The Caribbean Amerindian Population 31Patterns of European Settlement After Conquest 33The Rise and Fall of Sugarcane in the West Indies 35Population Problems 38Emigration from the Caribbean 39Urbanization in the Caribbean 41Economic Geography of the Caribbean 43Conclusion 483 The Historical Context Stephen J. RandallConquest and Colonization, 1492–1800 52Nation Building and Socioeconomic Transition in theNineteenth Century 60The Non-Spanish Caribbean in the Early Twentieth Century 67The Emergence of U.S. Hegemony, 1898–1930s 70The Emergence of Labor Organizations 74War and Cold War, 1939–1959 75The Cuban Revolution 78Conclusion 80v51
viContents4 Caribbean Politics Thomas J. D’Agostino85The Past as Prelude 85External Influences, Internal Dynamics, and New Forms 87The Case of Puerto Rico 91Socioeconomic Conditions and Political Consciousness 94Postwar Transitions 95The Case of the Dominican Republic 102The Anglo-Caribbean 103The Case of Jamaica 104Decades of Challenge and Change: The 1970s and 1980s 110The Case of Grenada 113The Resurgence of U.S. Interventionism 115The Case of Haiti 119An Era of Uncertainty: The 1990s and 2000s 1215 The Economies of the Caribbean Dennis A. Pantin129Common Economic History 129Some Differences 131Current Economic Structure 133Current Economic Performance 137Current and Projected Economic Challenges 140Conclusion 1446 International Relations H. Michael Erisman149Caribbean International Relations: A Historical Overview 151The Dynamics of Caribbean International Relations in theModern Era 156International Challenges Confronting the Caribbean 1707 The Environment and Ecology Duncan McGregor179The Physical Setting 180Historical and Recent Land Use Change 184Climate Change and Caribbean Environments 194Sustainability and the Environment: Some Reflections 1998 Ethnicity, Race, Class, and Nationality David Baronov &Kevin A. YelvingtonThe Mix of Ethnicity, Race, Class, and Nationality Across theCaribbean 211Historical Legacies 212Ethnic, Racial, and National Minorities in Caribbean Society 220Imagining the Caribbean Nation 223Contemporary Realities and CaribbeanMigrant Communities 229Conclusion 234209
Contents9 Women and Development A. Lynn Bollesvii239The Sociocultural Context of Caribbean Women 239Caribbean Women’s Early Struggles 243Women in the Hispanic Caribbean 246Caribbean Women’s Continuing Struggles 247Gender, Class, and Familial Organization 252The “Independent” Woman in the Contemporary Caribbean 257Women and the Organization of American States 259Conclusion 25910 Religion in the Caribbean Leslie G. Desmangles,Stephen D. Glazier & Joseph M. Murphy263Categories of Caribbean Religions 264Working the Amalgam 266Vodou 273Santería 280The Rastafari and the Dread 285Spiritual Baptists 291Caribbean Religions in the Diaspora 299Conclusion 30111 Literature and Popular Culture Kevin Meehan & Paul B. Miller305Indigenous Cultural Patterns 306The Early Colonial Era: Material Changes andCultural Adaptation 309The Nineteenth Century: Toward Cultural Autonomy 312The Early Twentieth Century: Literary Movements,Vernacular Writing, and Cultural Unification 317The Mid-Twentieth Century: The Dialectic of Exileand Nationalism 320The Late Twentieth Century and Beyond: The Dialectic of Returnand Disillusionment 324Conclusion 32812 The Caribbean Diaspora Dennis Conway333The Encounter with Europe: Domination of the Caribbean 335Caribbean–North American Circulations, 1880–1970 338Caribbean Diaspora Networks, 1970s to the Present 342Conclusion 34813 Trends and Prospects Richard S. Hillman & Andrés SerbinThe Intergovernmental Dynamic 356Transnational Civil Society 359The Forum of Greater Caribbean Civil Society 360The Future 361355
viiiContentsList of AcronymsBasic Political DataThe ContributorsIndexAbout the Book369371377379393
1IntroductionRichard S. HillmanThe Caribbean is considerably more important and certainly more complexthan its popular image suggests.1 Widely known as an attractive string ofunderdeveloped island nations in close proximity to the United States, theregion’s pleasant climate and natural attributes have attracted large numbersof tourists. Short visits to beautiful beaches and resorts, however, have contributed to a superficial vision of the Caribbean region. It is an interesting,significant, and exciting place for much more profound reasons.Although there is some truth to the stereotype of the Caribbean as a tropical paradise, the region’s historic, cultural, socioeconomic, and politicalinfluences far exceed its small size and low status in global affairs. Indeed,political and ideological movements and developments in the Caribbean haveprovoked international reactions. Moreover, throughout history the people ofthe Caribbean have been engaged in heroic struggles to liberate themselvesfrom the strictures and exploitation of colonialism, slavery, imperialism, neocolonialism, and dependency.Historically, the perception of the region has varied from that of anextremely valuable asset to more powerful nations to one of benign neglect.Its role as provider of sun, sand, and surf to Americans and Europeans, forexample, has obscured the fact that great power rivalries have been played outin the Caribbean. In fact, the United States has intervened in the Caribbeanmore than in any other geographical area of the world. The impacts of migration patterns, investment, and commerce, as well as illicit narcotics trafficking, have been significant not only in the Western Hemisphere but also inEurope and throughout the world. Similarly, Caribbean literature, art, andpopular culture have had global influences.1
Richard S. HillmanThomas J. D’Agostino2Deep Bay, AntiguaThe Caribbean peoples have made outstanding contributions in manyfields, both in their home countries and in those countries to which they havemigrated. Their presence is apparent in professions such as health care andeducation, as well as in commerce, construction, music, cuisine, sports, andgovernment. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell, who first rose to the position of chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, is a first-generation U.S. citizen of Jamaican origin. Baseball legend Sammy Sosa was born in theDominican Republic (in fact, one of every four players in Major League Baseball is from the Caribbean). Many actors like Harry Belafonte and SidneyPoitier, singers like Bob Marley and the Mighty Sparrow, academics likeOrlando Patterson, and writers like Derek Wolcott, V. S. Naipaul, JohnHearne, Jamaica Kincaid, Aimé Césaire, and Gabriel García Márquez represent the wealth of talent emanating from the Caribbean.Ironically, as North Americans and Europeans flock to the Caribbeanvacationland, the people of the region seek to leave their homelands. Theirquest for upward socioeconomic mobility has resulted in large populationconcentrations abroad. New York City, for example, contains the largest urbanconcentration of Dominicans outside Santo Domingo. Similarly, New York isthe second largest Puerto Rican city next to San Juan. And Miami has becomeso influenced by Cubans, Jamaicans, and Haitians, among others, that it iscommonly referred to as “the capital of the Caribbean.”The Caribbean has always been considered a geopolitical and strategiccrossroads (see Maps 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3). From the fifteenth century to the end
SNE StraitsofANDROSISLAND EE STAMASKingston Guantánamo Gulf ofPanamaCartagena TURKS &CAICOS ISLANDSCOLOMBIABogotáE S ARUBABONAIRECaracas ARDBasse-Terre Port-of-SpainGUYANASURINAME ParamariboOceanGeorgetown TRINIDADAND TOBAGOBridgetownKingstown GRENADASt. George's BARBADOSFort-de-FranceCastries ST. LUCIADOMINICA RoseauMARTINIQUE ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINESBarlovento LEEWAtlanticANGUILLAST. MAARTEN/ST. MARTINST. EUSTATIUSSABABARBUDAST. KITTS ANTIGUANEVISSt. John'sMONTSERRATGUADELOUPEVIRGINISLANDSISLA DE MARGARITAVENEZUELA ChoroníWillemstad CURAÇAO RICO PUERTOPonceSan JuanNETHERLANDSANTILLESSan Pedro de MacorisMayagüez SantoDomingoDOMINICANREPUBLICI N D I ESA N HAITIT I L Lageass dward PSantiagoinde Cuba W Gonaîves Port-au-PrinceRWHCaribbean SeaPanama CanalColón Panama PANAMATJAMAICA NassauMontego BayREACUBAGFCAYMANISLANDSPa c i f i cOceanSan JoséLimón alpaBELIZE Havana MiamiaridloMap 1.1 The Caribbean RegionW San SalvadorEL SALVADORGuatemala GUATEMALA Belize City BelmopanMEXICOYucatanCancún ChannelGulf of MexicoMona PassageUNITEDSTATESERSSALEBLESESTILHNDWINDI S L AW A R DNDSTLAANISCayenne FRENCHGUIANAJohn Bogdal
ANDROS W Santiagode CubaM ASAtlantic N TI L L ES S Ponce EISLANDSU.S. VIRGINBRITISH VIRGINISLANDSSan JuanOceanWNLa RomanaPUERTOSantoMayagüez RICODomingo BarahonaSamanáSan Pedro deMacorisWHAITI DOMINICANPort-au-PrinceREPUBLIC Cockburn TownTURKS &CAICOS ISLANDSI N De Cap-HaïtienI E SgassPaMonte Cristirda Santiagow din Gonaîves E STGuantánamo AMontego BayOcho RiosNegril Port MorantJAMAICAKingstonAOld Harbour Map 1.2 The Northern CaribbeanCaribbean SeaTownManzanilloG REACAYMANTE ISLANDSRGeorgeCamagüeyHolguínNassau NEWPROVIDENCEFreeportSancti SpiritusCUBAFl Santa ClaraMatanzas CienfuegosSstraitofMiamiHPinardel Rio HavanaGulfofMexicoUNITEDSTATESTampa aidorSt. PetersburgeEa PassagHAMonTBJohn Bogdal
PoncePUERTORICO U.S. VIRGINISLANDS ANGUILLAsGUADELOUPEMARIE-GALANTE MARTINIQUEPort-of-Spain St. George'sTRINIDADAND TOBAGO BridgetownBARBADOS San Fernando GRENADAKingstownST. VINCENT & THEGRENADINES Castries ST. LUCIAFort-de-FranceMartinique PPortsmouth DOMINICARoseauassageDominica PassageILES DES SAINTESBasse-Terre GuPlymouth oupe Pas LA DÉSIRADEadelST. MAARTEN / ST. MARTINST. BARTHÉLEMYST. EUSTATIUSBARBUDASABABasseterreANTIGUA St.John'sST. KITTSMONTSERRAT NEVISageTheValleyISLA DE MARGARITAISLA LA TORTUGAVENEZUELABONAIRE CharlotteAmalie Road TownBRITISH VIRGINISLANDSgeMap 1.3 The Southern CaribbeanWillemstad ARUBA CURAÇAOOranjestadea PassagCaribbean SeaMonNETHERLANDSANTILLESSan Pedrode Macoris SantoDomingoMayagüezSan John Bogdal
6Richard S. Hillmanof the twentieth century—from Christopher Columbus to Fidel Castro—theCaribbean has been the focus of external influences (Williams 1979). First,European colonial powers imposed their systems and control. Later the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 conceived of the region as within the sphere of influenceof the United States. As a consequence, the Caribbean was thought of as thebackyard of the United States—a U.S. lake, so to speak. The Cold Warimpinged upon emergent pressures within the Caribbean to define itselfautonomously by creating confusion as to the origins of national movements.In the post–Cold War era the potential for continued democratization,expanded free trade, and pragmatic regional integration loom large on thehorizon. The Caribbean is increasingly perceived as a vital link in the realization of a Free Trade Area of the Americas.There are, of course, serious challenges confronting the region as awhole, as well as individual countries. The Caribbean comprises ministatesendowed with widely dispersed and, in some cases, sparse resources. Thus,economic development has been problematic. Political evolution also hasbeen complicated. In countries that have experienced long periods of colonialism, with the attendant institutions of the plantation and slavery, it is difficult to overcome deeply ingrained authoritarian legacies in order to promotethe consolidation of democracy. This does not mean, however, that historicallegacies will determine the future. Moreover, disparate developments such asthe Cuban revolution, the Haitian transition toward democracy, and the invasion of Grenada further complicate the absence of a singular paradigm ormodel that would fit the entire region. Thus, generalizations about Caribbeanpolitical and economic development must of necessity be multifaceted andintricate if they are to be meaningful. Yet the different countries of theCaribbean have much in common.Among the most problematic common features are financial weaknessand lack of investment capital. Most production in the Caribbean has involvedfood processing, the making of clothing, and the manufacturing of sugar andrum. Efforts to expand these activities to earn additional income and providenew jobs through programs of import substitution and industrialization byinvitation have been relatively unsuccessful.2 Also, West Indian governmentshave sought to protect local industries by imposing tariffs on the importationof foreign goods. But this drove up the prices of domestically manufacturedgoods, which were often inferior in quality to imported goods.Among the incentives used to attract investment capital are low-costlabor, factories constructed by the island governments, reduction in taxes orcomplete tax abatements for a number of years (free-trade zones), government-sponsored training programs, political stability, and proximity to thelarge North American market.Companies assembling goods for export to the United States benefit fromspecial U.S. tariffs that either reduce or waive import duties for these prod-
Introduction7ucts. When duties are imposed, they usually are assessed only on the valueadded to the products by the Caribbean operations. U.S. firms, seeking toescape high-cost unionized labor, have established assembly maquiladoras(factories) in the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, and Barbados. Predominantly female workers typically earn between U.S. 50 and 100 perweek in as many as 1,000 maquiladoras throughout the Caribbean employingmore than 25,000 workers. A significant portion of the moderately pricedclothing sold in the United States is now made in these island factories.Neoliberal economic philosophy purports that it is more beneficial forisland producers to export their products. Accordingly, the World Bank andthe International Monetary Fund (IMF) require local governments to devaluetheir currencies to reduce the costs of their products overseas; lower theirimport tariffs to increase local competition and efficiency; and reduce domestic spending (so their financial reserves will make the loans more likely to bepaid off). The main problem with this philosophy is that it creates austerity inthe home country. Currency devaluation raises local prices; competition fromimported goods can drive local firms out of business, exacerbating alreadyhigh levels of unemployment; and decreased government spending reducesthe amount of money circulating within the island’s economy, causing political pressures.One of the more successful economic mechanisms used by Caribbeannations to fortify their economies has been offshore banking.3 Some nationsprovide advantages such as reduction or elimination of taxes on income, profits, dividends, and capital gains in secret accounts.4 Moreover, legal fees andlicenses are charged by the banks, adding valuable foreign currency to theisland’s economy. First, the Netherlands Antilles, especially Curaçao, andthen the Bahamas, the Cayman Islands, Antigua, the Turks and Caicos Islands,Montserrat, and St. Vincent recently became the leading centers in theCaribbean for offshore banking. In the Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, offshore banking is the second leading industry behind tourism, providing 15–20percent of each country’s gross national product.In sum, although the Caribbean continues to struggle with political andeconomic challenges, the global scope of the region’s impact is inconsistentwith its image and size: the Caribbean contains approximately 36 million people—a small percentage of the Western Hemisphere and only a tiny fractionof the world’s population. But their impact has been disproportionate to theirnumbers, and there are many enclaves of Caribbean peoples living in otherareas of the world. London, Toronto, Miami, and New York, for example,have a large West Indian presence.As the world continues to become more interdependent, a global societyis emerging within which the Caribbean must be integrated. Therefore, it isvery important to increase our understanding of the contemporary Caribbean.Unfortunately, there has been a theoretical confusion resulting from segre-
8Richard S. Hillmangated analyses of the region according to superficial criteria. For purposes ofconvenience (as opposed to more penetrating factors), one finds reference tolinguistic divisions, geographic distributions, and chronological dates of independence, for example. These approaches have reaffirmed obvious differences while obscuring common factors that could contain important information for the production of salutary solutions to pervasive problems.Our earlier research has shown that the Hispanic countries within theCaribbean have been considered an integral part of Latin America, and theEnglish-speaking countries have been excluded based on the assumption thatdifferent cultural heritages require a fundamentally different analytical framework. Thus, scholars of Latin America focus on the Latin Caribbean “often tothe almost total exclusion of other areas,” whereas scholars of the Commonwealth Caribbean “have usually neglected the Latin Caribbean” (Millet andWill 1979:xxi). We have shown that the Caribbean region provides a microcosm of a fragmented third world in which divisions “tenaciously obscuresimilarities and impede the evolution of common interests and aspirations”and that the absence of a “single, holistic community” has resulted (Hillmanand D’Agostino 1992:1–17).Some authors have argued that there is a “clear dividing line” separatingthe English-speaking Caribbean countries from their Hispanic, French, andDutch neighbors (Serbin 1989:146). Some conclude that conflicts in relationsbetween Caribbean countries are due to “misconceptions, misunderstanding,and lack of communication . . . deriving from historical, cultural, racial, andlinguistic differences” (Bryan 1988:41). Others have attributed the absence ofa single community to the divisiveness of separate Caribbean societies “oftenfatally hostile to each other” (Moya Pons 1974:33).Our approach reveals that beneath obvious differences lie similarities incommon historical themes, geopolitical and sociocultural contexts, economicexperiences, and accommodation patterns that reflect the pressures of congruent sociopolitical environments. Moreover, we believe that there has beensignificant convergence of mutual economic and political interests to warrantthe promotion of improved relations between the diverse Caribbean states.Nicolás Guillén summarizes this idea succinctly when he characterizes theCaribbean archipelago as one “communal yard” due to its common heritageof slavery, imperial domination, and struggle (Guillén 1976:26). And PéreLabat observed in the eighteenth century that the Caribbean peoples are “alltogether, in the same boat, sailing the same uncertain sea” (Knight 1990:307).We believe that academic and political navigation in this sea can be enhancedthrough understanding and appreciating the forces that have shaped the contemporary Caribbean.Therefore, there is a need for an interdisciplinary introduction to theCaribbean region. Academic, business, and policy interests require understanding this complex and significant area. But the growing numbers of peo-
Introduction9Larry Shumanple who wish to learn about the Caribbean are not able to use narrowlyfoc
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