INTEGRATIVE AND PREDICTIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT READING: THE .
INTEGRATIVE AND PREDICTIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT READING: THE N400ACROSS A SENTENCE BOUNDARYbyRegina CallowayB.S. in Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, 2013Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of theDietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillmentof the requirements for the degree ofMaster of Science in PsychologyUniversity of Pittsburgh2016i
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGHDIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCESThis thesis was presentedbyRegina CallowayIt was defended onDecember 15, 2015and approved byCharles Perfetti, Professor, Department of PsychologyNatasha Tokowicz, Associate Professor, Department of PsychologyScott Fraundorf, Assistant Professor, Department of PsychologyThesis Director: Charles Perfetti, Professor, Department of Psychology]ii
Copyright by Regina Calloway2016iii
INTEGRATIVE AND PREDICTIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT READING: THE N400ACROSS A SENTENCE BOUNDARYRegina Calloway, M.S.University of Pittsburgh, 2016In the present study we used two experiments to test whether readers use integrative(retrospective), predictive (prospective), or both processes when reading words across a sentenceboundary. We used Experiment 1 to determine whether prediction and integration could bemeasured as distinct processes. Response times (RTs) to determining whether probe wordsoccurred in a previous sentence were measured. Critical probes were either high or lowpredictable words, given a context sentence. Both word types were easy to integrate, fitting wellwith the previous sentence. Results showed high predictable words had longer RTs than lowpredictable words, demonstrating that prediction and integration are distinct processes. InExperiment 2 we aimed to determine which processes were used when reading across a sentenceboundary using event-related potentials (ERPs). The ERP component of interest was the N400,an indicator of semantic fit. We measured processing differences for high and low predictablewords that were matched for integrability in sentence pairs. In a control condition, words wereunpredictable and difficult to integrate. There was no difference in word processing (indicated byN400 amplitudes) between high and low predictable words across a sentence boundary.However, both word types were easier to process (reduced N400s) than control conditions.Findings show semantic overlap from word- and sentence-level activations facilitate integrationin cross-sentence boundary reading.iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS1.0 INTRODUCTION. 11.11.1.11.21.2.11.3PREDICTIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT COMPREHENSION . 2The N400 in prediction research . 3INTEGRATIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT COMPREHENSION . 5The N400 in Integration research . 7CURRENT EXPERIMENTS . 92.0 PREDICTABILITY AND INTEGRABILITY NORMING STUDIES . 112.1PREDICTABILITY SCORES . 112.2INTEGRABILITY SCORES . 123.0 EXPERIMENT 1: BEHAVIORAL STUDY . 133.1METHOD . 143.1.1Participants . 143.1.2Materials . 143.1.2.1 Experimental and baseline conditions. 143.1.3Design and procedure . 193.1.4Measures . 203.1.4.1 Reading comprehension and vocabulary . 20v
3.1.4.2 Working memory . 203.23.2.1RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . 21Descriptive data . 213.2.1.1 Comprehension, vocabulary, and WM . 213.2.2Responses to critical probe words . 224.0 EXPERIMENT 2: ERP STUDY. 254.1METHOD . 264.1.1Participants . 264.1.2Materials . 264.1.3Design and procedure . 274.1.4Apparatus, ERP recording and processing . 274.24.2.1RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . 29Descriptive data . 294.2.1.1 Nelson-Denny . 294.2.1.2 Text comprehension questions . 294.2.2ERP results . 294.2.2.1 Analysis procedure . 294.2.2.2 Mean amplitude analysis: N400 . 304.2.2.3 Post-hoc and P600 time window analyses . 345.0 GENERAL DISCUSSION . 36APPENDIX A . 40APPENDIX B . 63BIBLIOGRAPHY . 121vi
LIST OF TABLESTable 1. Sample Passages . 15Table 2. Word characteristics of stimuli . 17Table 3. Sample filler baseline passage . 18Table 4. Correlations among assessments . 22Table 5. Experiment 1 materials . 40Table 6. Experiment 2 materials . 63vii
LIST OF FIGURESFigure 1. Response times (RTs) . 23Figure 2. Electrode clusters. 30Figure 3. Topography of conditions. 31Figure 4. ERP waveformss . 33viii
1.0INTRODUCTIONWhen comprehending a text, readers incrementally form and update their mental understanding,or situation model, of the text (van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983; Just & Carpenter, 1980; Kendeou,Smith, & O’Brien, 2013; Myers & O’Brien, 1998; Yang, Perfetti, & Schmalhofer, 2007). Asreaders gain new information in a text, they face a choice of adding information to the currentsituation model or starting a new situation model (i.e., shifting; Gernsbacher, 1991). The choicebetween shifting and continuing to build a situation model is especially important at thebeginning of a new sentence, which may begin a new topic. If the topic shifts, readers need toform a new situation model around the new topic. If the topic continues across sentences, readersmust link upcoming words with the situation model to maintain text coherence.Two processes that aid incremental updating are prediction and integration. Predictioninvolves prospectively activating a specific word whereas integration involves assimilating aword into a mental representation. Take the following sentence for example: After drawing fivecards from the deck, Sebastian cautiously laid down his money. If readers use integrativeprocesses, a word that relates to the topic (e.g., bet) should be easy to process. If readers usepredictive processes and predict bet, it should be even easier to process because bet is the wordthey predicted and it fits well with the situation model. In both outcomes, readers requireintegration but not prediction to successfully understand the text. In fact, when readers encounter1
unpredicted words that defy their predictions, they require more processing effort for thosewords. (Van Petten & Luka, 2011). Because of the potential for prediction costs and for a shift intopic across a sentence boundary, we aim to answer the following question: Are integrative,predictive, or both processes used in cross-sentence boundary reading?1.1PREDICTIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT COMPREHENSIONPredictive processes likely play a major role in facilitating word processing duringcomprehension, however much past research has focused on prediction within a sentenceboundary. Predictive processes involve activating lexical items or features (e.g., tense, wordclass) before encountering them based on prior information. Predictions can be specific orgeneral. Specific predictions provide information about a specific lexical item (Kutas &Federmeier, 2011; Van Petten & Luka, 2011). General predictions are broad expectations,including activations of related features or word-class (Lau, Phillips, & Poeppel, 2008). Muchpast research focuses on specific predictions. Evidence for predictive processing comes fromsemantic priming and sentence-reading paradigms with highly constrained contexts for words insentence medial or final positions (Brothers, Swaab, & Traxler, 2015; Federmeier & Kutas,1999; Federmeier, Wlotko, De Ocha-Dewald, & Kutas, 2007; Kutas & Federmeier, 2011; Kutas& Hillyard, 1980; Van Petten & Luka, 2011). One motivation for the current study is todetermine whether these predictive processes are used across sentence boundaries.To assess the role of predictive processes across sentence boundaries, word predictabilitycan be measured with cloze probability tasks. In these cloze tasks, individuals are requested to2
provide predictions for upcoming words after receiving context information., which can includegeneral world knowledge and information gained from a text (Cook, Limber, & O’Brien, 2001;Schmalhofer et al., 2002; Seifert, Robertson, & Black, 1985). Predictability is then calculated asthe number of responses for a particular word divided by the total number of responses.Support for predictability effects within a sentence boundary stems eye-tracking,behavioral, and electrophysiological studies. In an eye-tracking study, Rayner and Well (1996)found that readers fixated on low predictable words longer than high and moderate predictablewords. Authors concluded that it is easier to process more-predictable words because featuresrelated to the words are active. Cook et al. (2001) showed similar results in a word naming study.More-predictable words had shorter naming times than less-predictable words. In addition tobehavioral and eye-tracking studies, electrophysiological studies are designed to measurecognitive processes involved in prediction as indications of a mismatch between a predictedword and the word that actually occurred within a text. These electrophysiological measuresallow for online measures of cognitive processes with high temporal resolution. In particular, themost widely established electrophysiological marker for assessing prediction is an event-relatedpotential (ERP) component termed the N400.1.1.1 The N400 in prediction researchThe N400 is widely used to test effects of context on word processing. Kutas and Hillyard (1980)first discovered a negative deflection in ERP recordings occurring between 300 and 500milliseconds (ms) after an anomalous stimulus relative to a stimulus congruent with theestablished context. Since its discovery, this negative deflection peaking at 400 ms has been used3
as an index of semantic fit. Words that semantically fit with a previous context evoke reducedN400 amplitudes relative to words that do not semantically fit with the prior context.Researchers have also found greater N400 amplitudes for unpredictable words compared topredictable words (Brothers et al., 2015; DeLong, Urbach, & Kutas, 2005; Federmeier & Kutas,1999).Examining changes in N400 amplitude as a function of context, Federmeier and Kutas(1999) manipulated how sentence-final words related to predicted words obtained from a clozetask. The first sentence provided context information with ERPs measured at the final word ofthe second sentence. The final word could be related congruous (high-cloze), related incongruous(semantically related to the high-cloze word but incongruent with the context), or unrelatedincongruous (not semantically related to the high-cloze word and incongruent with the context).An example stimulus from their experiment follows.(1) They wanted to make the hotel look more like a tropical resort. So along thedriveway, they planted rows of palms/pines/tulips.Palms had the highest cloze probability followed by pines, then tulips. Unrelatedincongruous words (tulips) had increased N400 amplitudes compared to related incongruous(pines) and related congruous (palms). Related congruous words had the smallest N400amplitude. Reduced N400 amplitudes for pines, which is semantically related to the predicteditem palms, indicated a semantic relationship advantage for words related to the predicted word.Regarding the prediction and expectation differentiation, a specific prediction could be made forpalms. There could also be a general expectation for tropical plants, and palms fits best with thisscenario.4
While much work has focused on context incongruence in reading nouns, researchershave recently examined ERPs at adjectives and articles preceding target nouns (Boudewyn et al.,2015; DeLong et al., 2005; Laszlo & Federmeier, 2009; Van Berkum, Brown, Zwitserlood,Kooijman, & Hagoort, 2005), providing clearer evidence for specific lexical item predictions.DeLong et al. (2005) visually presented sentences and used the “a/an” contrast in English toexplore how individuals engage in predictive processes. DeLong and colleagues examined targetnouns and their preceding articles in a single sentence context. For example in the sentence: Theday was breezy so the boy went outside to fly a kite/an airplane, “a kite” is the more predictablenoun phrase (“a” cloze probability .86; “kite” cloze probability .89). Cloze probabilities onthe articles and nouns were measured independently by asking individuals to fill in either nounsor articles. Because the articles do not differ in meaning, any differences in N400 amplitudes on“a/an” would indicate that readers predicted the upcoming noun or noun phrase. Compared witharticles whose forms were inconsistent with predicted nouns, articles consistent with predictednouns evoked reduced N400 amplitudes. On the whole, evidence for predictive processing inreading has been established across nouns, adjectives, and articles. Despite the variety in theseword forms, predictive processes have been examined largely at the within-sentence levelwithout accounting for the integrative processes necessary to maintain coherence.1.2INTEGRATIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT COMPREHENSIONIntegration involves memory-based processes for text comprehension. In the process of word-totext integration (WTI), readers continually integrate words into a situation model. In the WTI5
paradigm, researchers focus on how readers integrate words across a sentence boundary (Perfetti& Stafura, 2014). Predictability is relatively low in cross-sentence boundary reading. Forexample, Stafura and Perfetti (2014) manipulated association strength between the final word ofthe first sentence and first word of a second sentence. Though they included a strong associationcondition and a control condition, overall cloze probabilities were low (strong association: M .053, SD .1; control: M .007, SD .03; Stafura & Perfetti, 2014).In cross-sentence boundary reading, new information is referenced back to a previoussentence or paragraph. If a word fits well with previous contextual information, processing onthat word will be easier relative to a word that did not fit well with previous contextualinformation. Cook and Guéraud (2005) also emphasize the importance of world knowledge onreading comprehension and lexical item processing in which familiarity with general conceptsinfluences how easily upcoming information is integrated into the situation model. Contextualinformation also allows facilitation or feature activations for upcoming words (Stanovich &West, 1981). Words that are strongly associated with prior information have greater facilitationand are easier to integrate (Brown & Hagoort, 1993).Different inference procedures and referential overlap among lexical items allow readersto draw links between a prior sentence and the beginning of a new sentence. Sometimes, theselinks are between pronouns (referents) and a previously established entity (antecedent; Gordon,Grosz, & Gilliom, 1993). In other situations, links among sentences are not as transparent. Forexample, comprehension processes involved in cross-sentence boundary reading might requirereaders to make inferences about upcoming words (Graesser, Singer, & Trabasso, 1994). Morefundamentally, readers can make backward or bridging inferences during text reading as theyadjust their mental representation of the text to accommodate the newly encountered word6
(Keenan, Baillet, & Brown, 1984). Bridging inferences are especially necessary when anantecedent is absent, resulting in no explicit connection between referent and prior textinformation. Take the following sentences from Yang et al. (2007) as an example.(2) After being dropped from the plane, the bomb hit the ground and blew up. Theexplosion was quickly reported to the commander.Here, explosion refers to the event blew up. A reader can connect the referent to theantecedent because explosion refers to a similar concept of a bomb blowing up (Dijk & Kintsch,1983; Johns, Gordon, Long, & Swaab, 2014; Perfetti & Stafura, 2014). However, when noantecedent is present (e.g. After being dropped from the plane, the bomb hit the ground.) onemust make a bridging inference and infer the relationship between explosion and the bombhitting the ground, because no clear antecedent in the first sentence exists.1.2.1 The N400 in Integration researchYang et al. (2007) tested the hypothesis that readers have
INTEGRATIVE AND PREDICTIVE PROCESSES IN TEXT READING: THE N400 ACROSS A SENTENCE BOUNDARY by Regina Calloway B.S. in Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, 2013 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Psychology
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Integrative Medicine Center Th e mission of the Integrative Medicine Program is to optimize health, quality of life and clinical outcomes through integrative medicine education and research-driven clinical care. page 2 Articles continued page 3 Information about our group programs
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