Green Jobs: Careers In Electric Vehicles
BLSGreen Jobs: Electric VehiclesU.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICSCareers in Electric VehiclesJames HamiltonSeptember 2011 — Report 4Electric vehicles have come a long way sinceGeneral Motors produced the first modern electricautomobile in 1996. With the recent introductionof the Chevrolet Volt and the Nissan Leaf, manufacturers of electric vehicles have made great strides in termsof technology and consumer acceptance. Electric carsare considered to be an important step towards reducingpetroleum dependence, protecting the environment, andimproving transportation sustainability. Many manufacturers have made major investments in electric automobile technology. The production of these vehicles willprovide employment opportunities for many workers,particularly those with automotive manufacturing experience.This report provides information on the relevant career fields in the production and maintenance of electricvehicles, including hybrids, plug-in hybrids, and all-electric vehicles.1 The first sections explain the componentsand types of electric autos, followed by a section thatprofiles key occupations in the electric vehicle industry. This report focuses on occupations in research anddevelopment, manufacturing, maintenance, infrastructuredevelopment, and sales. The information for each occupation includes a brief job description; the credentialsneeded to work in these occupations, such as education,training, certification, or licensure; and wage data.James Hamilton is an economist in the Office ofOccupational Statistics and Employment Projections,BLS. James is available at (202) 691-7877 or hamilton.james@bls.gov.Brief history of electric vehiclesElectric vehicles have been around in one form or another since the invention of the automobile. Many of thefirst automobiles were powered by a battery and not bygasoline. Electric vehicles even outsold gasoline-powered vehicles in the early 20th century. However, withimprovements to gasoline engines and the availability ofcheap fuel, electric vehicles fell out of favor. Throughoutthe 20th century, several models of electric vehicles wereproduced, but none became widely adopted by consumers.The 1990s saw a renewed interest in electric vehiclesbecause of increasing concerns about the environmentand higher fuel costs. General Motors introduced theEV-1 all-electric vehicle and began leasing the vehiclesin 1996. However, the EV-1 was discontinued afterseveral years. In 2000, hybrid-electric vehicles hit themarket when Honda introduced the Insight in the UnitedStates, and Toyota followed with the highly successfulNissan Leaf, all-electric vehicleU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1
Green Jobs: Electric VehiclesPrius several months later. In 2011, General Motorsbegan selling the Chevrolet Volt, a plug-in hybrid, andNissan began selling the Leaf, an all-electric vehicle.With these and other models, electric vehicles arerising in popularity and sales. In the United States,electric car sales increased from near zero in 1999 to ahigh of about 350,000 units in 2007. Sales of all motorvehicles, including electric ones, were affected by the2007–2009 recession. Electric vehicle sales fell to about250,000 vehicles in 2010. (See chart 1.)Chart 1. Sales of Hybrid Electric Vehicles, 1999–2010400,000350,000Differences between electric andtraditional vehiclesVehicles sold300,000250,000Electric vehicles share many of the same basic components found in traditional automobiles, but they haveunique components that separate them from conventionalvehicles, such as the lithium-ion battery and electric motor.200,000150,000100,00050,0000electric vehicle purchase. In addition, some states thatoperate high occupancy lanes, known as HOV or carpoollanes, allow electric vehicles to use them regardless ofthe number of passengers.The popularity of electric vehicles can be partiallyattributed to the rising price of gasoline. As gasolineprices increase, more consumers are turning to hybrid orelectric vehicles as a method to lower their expenses.The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) does not havedata on employment in the electric vehicle industry.However, BLS is currently in the process of collectingdata to measure green jobs, including those jobs relevantto the electric vehicles industry. Data should be availablein 2012.31999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010Source: U.S. Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy LaboratoryMany consumers purchased electric vehicles in orderto qualify for tax incentives from the federal governmentand some states. The tax credits and rebates were createdby the federal government in an effort to reduce dependence on petroleum and build U.S. leadership in electricvehicle technologies.2 From July 2005 until December2010, federal tax credits were available for hybrid vehicles; these have since expired and have been replacedwith similar rebates for plug-in hybrid and all-electricvehicles. Federal tax credits are currently available forup to 7,500 for vehicles, plus an additional 2,000for the stations used to charge all-electric vehicles andsome hybrids. The federal government has also investedin vehicle technologies to support the electric vehicleindustry, including research and development of batteriesand charging stations.Tax credits are offered by some states. For example,California offers tax credits of up to 5,000 on anBatteriesMost conventional gasoline-powered vehicles use leadacid batteries. Electric vehicles, however, require largelithium-ion batteries or other batteries that use newtechnologies that provide more power and weigh lessthan older batteries of a similar size. Batteries in electric vehicles must also supply a much greater amount ofelectricity and recharge faster than those in conventionalvehicles. Thus, electric vehicle batteries are much largerthan conventional vehicle batteries; they usually weighseveral hundred pounds, need to be replaced after severalyears, and cancost thousandsof dollars. Scientists and engineers continueto develop newtechnologies tocreate smaller,lighter batteriesthat last longerand provide morepower.Electric vehicle batteryU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics2
Green Jobs: Electric VehiclesElectric motorsHybrid electric vehiclesElectric motors have been used for over a century; infact, they were used in some of the earliest cars. Electricmotors are powered by an electric current that createsa magnetic charge and turns a driveshaft. (See diagram1.) Electric motors waste less energy in the form of heatthan do internal combustion engines, so they are moreefficient. Torque (a measure of the turning force on anobject) and revolutions per minute (RPM, or the speedthat the motor turns) can be controlled by the electricmotor as it adjusts the electrical current fed through themotor, even making a transmission unnecessary in somevehicles.Hybrid electric vehicles, commonly called hybrids, arepowered by a combination of an internal combustionengine and an electric motor. There are several types ofhybrid vehicles, and they vary depending on whetherthe engine or the motor is the primary source of power.Some are powered primarily by an internal combustionengine with additional power supplied by an electricmotor. Others are powered by the electric motor with agasoline engine as backup.The electric motor is powered by a battery andgenerator. The generator, which receives power from theinternal combustion engine, charges the battery and thebattery powers the electric motor. In all cases, havingan electric motor allows for a much smaller gas engine,which saves fuel and lowers tailpipe emissions. Thesevehicles may also employ regenerative braking, in whichenergy captured from the brakes is used to recharge thebattery. This allows the vehicle to get better gas mileagewhen driving in the city and in stop-and-go traffic. Theseare currently the most popular type of electric vehicles inuse today. Models are available from many manufacturers, including the Toyota Prius, Honda Civic Hybrid, andthe Ford Escape Hybrid.Diagram 1 — Inner workings of an electric motorDiagram 2 — Powertrain of a hybrid electric vehicleInternal combustion enginesMost hybrid vehicles contain an internal combustionengine as the primary source of power, with a batteryand electric motor acting as secondary power sources.Because power is also available from the battery andelectric motor, these engines are typically smaller thanthose found in regular automobiles. Internal combustionengines in hybrid vehicles can also be used to rechargethe battery. Plug-in hybrids get most of their power fromthe electric system and use the internal combustion engine to recharge the battery or to power the vehicle afterthe battery runs out.Types of electric vehiclesElectric vehicles can be classified as hybrids, plug-inhybrids, and all-electric vehicles. Each type of vehicleworks in a different way and has its own advantages anddisadvantages.Plug-in hybrid vehiclesPlug-in hybrids have an electric motor and a gasolineengine like other hybrids, but they have a larger batteryand can be charged from a secondary power source whenthey are in a resting state. Plug-in hybrids can drive anywhere from 10 to 40 miles using just electricity beforethe battery runs out and the internal combustion engineU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 3
Green Jobs: Electric Vehiclesturns on to power the vehicle. The Chevrolet Volt is anexample of this type of vehicle.Diagram 3 — Powertrain of a plug-in hybrid vehicleConverted electric vehiclesSome traditional gas-powered vehicles that have internalcombustion engines are converted to electric vehiclesthat use electric propulsion. Because of the limited number of electric vehicle models on the market, conversioncompanies often perform vehicle conversions for consumers who prefer a certain type of vehicle not currentlyavailable with an electric motor. Businesses also dovehicle conversions for specific types of vehicles that arerequired for business, such as light trucks or passengervehicles.Electric vehicle occupationsAll-electric vehiclesAll-electric vehicles, also called battery electric vehicles,are powered by only a battery and an electric motor, andthey do not contain a gasoline engine at all. When theirpower runs low, all-electric vehicles must be plugged into an external source of electricity, such as a chargingstation, to recharge their batteries. Because their batteries are larger than batteries in other electric vehicles,all-electric vehicles can drive for about 100 miles beforethey must be recharged. However, they have no gasolineengine to take over when the battery runs low, so thesevehicles have a lower overall mileage range than othertypes of electric vehicles. The major benefit of all-electric cars is that they consume no gasoline and have zerotailpipe emissions. The Nissan Leaf is an example of thistype of vehicle.Diagram 4 — Powertrain of an all-electric vehicleWorkers from a variety of educational and employment backgrounds are employed in the electric vehicleindustry, such as the scientists who conduct research inelectric drive technology, the manufacturing workerswho build the vehicles, and the automotive maintenancetechnicians who repair the vehicles. Most of these occupations require specialized training or work experiencein electric vehicle manufacturing and maintenance.This section describes some of the most commonjobs in the electric vehicle industry; for each occupation,job duties are listed, along with the credentials neededfor the occupation, including education, training, certification, or licensure. Certification demonstrates thecandidate’s competency in a skill or set of skills, typically through work experience, training, the passage of anexamination, or some combination of the three. Licensing is done by individual states, and typically requiresthe candidate to pass an examination and to fulfill certaineligibility requirements, such as a minimum level ofeducation, work experience, training, or the completionof an internship, residency, or apprenticeship.Wage data are also included in the occupationdescriptions. Although BLS does not currently publishwage data specifically for electric vehicle occupations,the wages listed represent the larger industry or industrygroup that would employ the electric vehicle workers,when applicable. Wage data do not include benefits orother compensation.Employment growth is expected in most occupationsin the electric vehicle industry in the next few years,according to a study by the Center for Entrepreneurshipand Technology at the University of California, Berkeley. Growth is expected in manufacturing industries andthe domestic energy sector as the need for batteries andU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics4
Green Jobs: Electric Vehiclescharging stations increase.4 New types of automobilemanufacturing jobs will also be created; however, manyof these jobs will be filled by current manufacturingemployees or those that were displaced by recent downsizing of the automobile manufacturing industry. Thetransportation subsector itself accounted for a significantportion of the jobs lost in the manufacturing sector during the 2007–2009 recession.5 Occupations in scientific researchScientists in this industry search for new knowledge andconduct research to improve electric vehicle technology.Both chemists and materials scientists conduct researchon improving battery life and recharging time. Materialsscientists also research and develop new materials foruse in electric vehicles.Drivers who are considering the purchase of a plugin or an all-electric vehicle must take into account howfar the vehicle can drive before requiring a recharge.Because of the limited availability of electric vehiclecharging stations, drivers will need vehicles that they candrive long ranges before needing a recharge. Accordingto the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 11 stateshad no public charging stations at all as of June 2011,and 16 states had 10 or fewer. (See map 1.) Becauseelectricity storage is the major limiting factor for electricvehicle adoption, many scientists working on electricvehicles are focused on improving battery technology toallow for larger capacity.To make electric vehicles a viable alternative totraditional ones, scientists also strive to make batteriesthat recharge faster. Nonelectric vehicles can be filledwith gas in a matter of a few minutes, while most currentbatteries require several hours to fully charge.Scientists also work on batteries to improve a hybridvehicle’s fuel economy. The longer a vehicle can be driven on battery power alone, the less fuel it will consume.Improved batteries will allow vehicles to rely more onelectric propulsion and less on fossil fuels.Scientists usually work in offices and laboratories.Research and development (R&D) scientists work in offices, where they do research, and they plan, record, andreport on their lab research. Some laboratories are small,and others are large enough to incorporate prototypechemical manufacturing facilities and advanced testingMap 1. Public electric vehicle charging stations in the United States, June 2011Electric StationsNone10 or less11 – 2021 – 5051 – 100Over 500Source: U.S. Department of EnergyU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 5
Green Jobs: Electric Vehiclesequipment. Scientists often work with engineers and processing specialists in industrial manufacturing facilities.Job dutiesChemists investigate the properties, composition, andstructure of matter, and the laws that govern the reactionsof substances to each other. Using this knowledge, chemists working on electric vehicles find new chemicals touse in batteries or ways to make existing batteries workbetter. They work closely with engineers and other scientists to develop new batteries and other technologies.Materials scientists study the structures andchemical properties of various materials to develop newproducts or enhance existing ones. For electric vehicles,materials scientists are heavily involved in battery research, but also develop materials for other parts of thevehicle. Structural and mechanical components made outof lighter or stronger materials will be needed to makevehicles more fuel efficient and reliable. These materials also may improve the safety of vehicles as well asthe environmental impact. In the United States, somevehicles already have interior components, such as seatsand upholstery, made out of plant-based and recycledmaterials that were developed by materials scientists.CredentialsA doctoral degree is a necessity for scientists whoconduct original research and develop new products.However, other scientific workers may find jobs with abachelor’s or master’s degree. Computer skills are essential for scientists to perform data analysis, integration,modeling, and testing. Certification or licensure is notnecessary for most of these scientists.WagesBLS currently does not have wage data specific to theelectric vehicle industry. The table shows wages forselected scientist occupations for May 2010. The wagesshown are median annual wages for the United States asa whole; wages vary by employer and location.Selected scientist occupationsChemistsMaterials scientists1Median annualwages, 20101 68,32084,720Occupational Employment Statistics data are available atwww.bls.gov/oes. The data do not include benefits.Occupations in design and developmentWorkers who design and develop electric automobiletechnology include engineers, engineering technicians,and drafters; software developers; and industrial designers. Engineers apply the principles of science andmathematics to develop economical solutions to technical problems. Their work is the link between scientificresearch and commercial applications. Many engineersspecify requirements, then design, test, and integratecomponents to produce designs for new products. Afterthe design phase, engineers are responsible for evaluating a design’s effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety.Engineers use computers extensively to produce and analyze designs and to simulate and test systems. Computersare also necessary to monitor quality control processes.Most engineers work in offices, laboratories, orindustrial plants. Engineers are employed by mostcompanies that manufacture electric vehicles and theircomponents. Engineering is one of the most sought-afteroccupations in the automobile manufacturing industry.Engineers work in teams with other engineers, scientists, and industrial production managers to create newprocesses or devices for the manufacture of electricvehicles—or to improve existing ones.In addition to engineers, several other occupationsare important to the design and development process.Engineering technicians and mechanical drafters assistengineers with design work and other tasks. Softwaredevelopers create the software that is used to controlthe various systems of the vehicle, including the engine,battery, generator, and electric motor. Finally, industrialdesigners are responsible for the overall design of thevehicle and major components.Job dutiesChemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry todesign or improve equipment or to devise processes formanufacturing chemicals and products. Because the batteries of electric vehicles store power through chemicalprocesses, chemical engineers are responsible for developing new battery designs and improving current batterytechnologies. They are also vital in designing equipmentand processes for large-scale manufacturing and in planning and testing the methods of battery manufacturing.Electrical engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical components. Theyare responsible for designing the electrical circuitry thatU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics6
Green Jobs: Electric VehiclesChevrolet Volt, plug-in hybridallows a gas engine to charge the battery and distributethe electricity from the battery to the electric motor.Electrical engineers also might work on the heating andair-conditioning systems, vehicle lighting, and visualdisplays.Electronics engineers design, develop, and test electronic components and systems for vehicles. These engineers are primarily focused on the control systems andadditional electronic components for the vehicle. Theyare different from electrical engineers in that they do notfocus on the generation and distribution of electricity.Industrial engineers determine the most effectiveways to use the basic factors of production—people, machines, materials, information, and energy—to manufacture vehicles. They are concerned primarily with increasing productivity through the management of people, useof technology, and improvement of production methods.Because many electric vehicles require original manufacturing plans, industrial engineers design innovativemanufacturing processes and retool plants that formerlymade different models of cars.Materials engineers are involved in the development, processing, and testing of materials used inelectric vehicles. Many electric vehicles are made ofnewer materials that are lighter and stronger than thosein traditional cars. Materials engineers may also incorporate environmentally friendly materials that are derivedfrom plant-based materials or recycled materials.Mechanical engineers design, develop, and test thetools, engines, machines, and other mechanical devicesin electric vehicles. These devices may be componentsof electric vehicles, ormachines that are used inthe manufacture or repairof these vehicles. Theseengineers may focus onengines, electric motors, orother mechanical devices,such as transmissions,drivetrains, or steeringsystems.Mechanicalengineering techniciansassist engineers with solving technical problems inresearch, development,manufacturing, construction, inspection, andmaintenance. Their workis more narrowly focusedand is more oriented toward applications than that of engineers or scientists. Engineering technicians will buildor set up equipment, prepare and conduct experiments,collect data, and calculate or record results. They mayalso help engineers or scientists to make prototypes ofnewly designed equipment or assist with computer-aideddesign and drafting (CADD) equipment.Mechanical drafters prepare detailed drawingsthat show how to assemble machinery and mechanical devices. They are responsible for producing visualguidelines that illustrate the construction methods formechanical components of vehicles. Most drafters useCADD systems to prepare drawings.Software developers design and create software.They apply the theories of computer science and mathematical analysis to create and evaluate software applications and systems that make the computers run. Modernvehicles are extensively computer-controlled, and software developers create the software that controls thesevehicles. In addition, hybrid and electric vehicles useon-board computers to produce and distribute the properamount of electricity to power the vehicle in given conditions. The on-board computer also determines when touse the gasoline engine to power the vehicle and when touse the engine to recharge the battery.Commercial and industrial designers are responsible for the style, function, quality, and safety of vehicles.When they are designing a vehicle or vehicle component,designers must take into account the preferences ofpotential consumers as well as the production abilities ofU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 7
Green Jobs: Electric Vehiclesmanufacturers. The designers must work with engineersand other members of the production team to ensurethat the vehicles meet specified requirements. They thenprepare sketches or diagrams, usually with the aid ofcomputers, and work with engineers and other designersto improve a design.shown are median annual wages for the United States asa whole; wages vary by employer and location.Selected design and developmentoccupations in transportationequipment manufacturingMedian annualwages, 20101Chemical engineers 97,480CredentialsElectrical engineers87,580Engineers typically enter the electric vehicle industrywith a bachelor’s degree or higher in engineering. However, some positions require previous experience or anadvanced degree. Entry-level engineers may begin theircareer as an assistant to a more senior engineer until theydevelop the skills needed to work independently. Engineers are also expected to complete continuing educationcourses to keep up with rapidly changing technology.Specialized programs for engineering students whowish to work on electric or alternative fuel vehicles areavailable through the Department of Energy’s GraduateAutomotive Technology Education (GATE) program.The GATE program has educational programs at centersat eight universities nationwide.6Engineers are usually required to be certified inspecific systems and technologies, depending on thesystems used by a particular manufacturer. Licensure asa professional engineer (PE) is highly desired by employers and is often required for anything higher than anentry-level position.Engineering technicians and drafters usually havean associate’s degree or certification from a communitycollege or a technical school. Technicians and draftersparticipate in on-the-job training and are closely supervised by engineers.Software developers typically need at least a bachelor’s degree in computer science or a related discipline,combined with experience in computer programmingand software design.Commercial and industrial designers also typicallyhave at least a bachelor’s degree in engineering or industrial design, and they usually receive some on-the-jobtraining.Electronics engineers, exceptcomputer100,450Industrial engineers77,160Materials engineers89,000Mechanical engineers81,290Mechanical engineering technicians52,950Mechanical drafters53,840Software developers, applications94,680Commercial and industrial designers67,790WagesBLS currently does not have wage data specific to theelectric vehicle industry. The table shows wages forselected engineers, mechanical engineering technicians,drafters, software developers, and commercial andindustrial designers in the transportation equipmentmanufacturing industry group for May 2010. The wages1Occupational Employment Statistics data are available atwww.bls.gov/oes. The data do not include benefits.Occupations in manufacturingManufacturing electric vehicles is a complex processthat requires a large, skilled workforce. Electric vehiclesystems are more complex than a traditional internalcombustion engine, so they require special manufacturing processes. Many of the workers involved in themanufacture of electric vehicles have previously workedin traditional vehicle manufacturing. Automotive manufacturing occupations tend to be clustered around traditional industrial centers in the Great Lakes region andthe Midwest. The largest concentrations of these jobs arein Michigan and Ohio, but automobile manufacturingplants are located in other states as well. Manufacturing jobs in the electric vehicle industry include variousassemblers, machine tool operators, machinists, andindustrial production managers.Finished vehicles are manufactured by a few largeauto companies, but many of the vehicles’ parts are madeby smaller companies that specialize in individual components. These smaller pieces are then sold to the largerauto manufacturers.Many of the occupations involved in manufacturing electric vehicles are also involved in the manufacture of vehicle charging stations, which are necessaryfor most types of plug-in hybrid vehicles and all typesof battery-electric vehicles. These stations are usuallypurchased along with the vehicle and installed at theU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics8
Green Jobs: Electric Vehiclesowner’s home or workplace. In addition, commercialcharging stations have been installed throughout thecountry. (See map 1.) These stations are owned by private companies or government agencies and are available for electric vehicle owners to recharge their vehicleswhen away from home or work.Manufacturing workers usually work in largeautomotive assembly plants. These plants are usuallyquite noisy because they are filled with robotic devices,powerful machines, and hydraulic lifts. Safety conditionsin assembly plants have improved considerably over thepast several decades. However, manufacturing workersmight use machinery or chemicals that require specialhandling.Job dutiesElectrical and electronic equipment assemblers buildproducts such as electric motors, computers, electroniccontrol devices, and sensing equipment. Some of thesecomponents may be too small or fragile for human assembly, so they are assembled by automated systems.Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers fittogether the parts of larger components or controllingautomated systems that are used for smaller pieces.Electromechanical equipment assemblers use avariety of tools to build and assemble electromechanicalcomponents used in electric vehicles, such as gasolineengines, electric motors, and generators. This occupationis similar to electrical and electronic equipmentassemblers. However, these workers focus more on themechanical components, as opposed to electronics.Engine and other machine assemblers constructand assemble engines used in automobiles. They puttogether the gasoline-powered engines that are presentin hybrid cars and may be responsible for other components as well.Team assemblers work on a variety of manufacturing tasks. They may work on a traditional assembly lineor in a so-called “lean” manufacturing system, in whichthey may rotate between several different types of assembly work. These workers are usually on a team thatcompletes the final assembly of a vehicle. They may alsoassemble vehicle components that are not electrical ormechanical in nature, such as interiors or the body andframe of the vehicle.Computer-controlled machine tool operators usemachines to fabricate metal and plastic components ofvehicles. To
Careers in Electric Vehicles. James Hamilton. E. lectric vehicles have come a long way since . General Motors produced the first modern electric automobile in 1996. With the recent introduction of the Chevrolet Volt and the Nissan Leaf, manufactur-ers of electric vehicles have made great s
careers that relate to the environmental goal defined on their worksheet. Students can search for related careers by keyword, subject area, or cluster. (If they need help identifying careers that fit their assigned goal, they can find the example careers in the program and look in the Related Careers section for inspiration.)
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hotel jobs, representing a gain of over 160,000 hotel jobs since 2015. The total number of US jobs supported by the hotel industry increased by 1.1 million since 2015 and represents more than 1-in-25 US jobs (4.2%). A representative hotel with 100 occupied rooms supports 241 total jobs, including 137 direct jobs and 104 indirect and induced jobs.
of ‘green’ job creation (GHK, 2009) and has led some researchers to eschew use of the term completely. In a loose sense, though, ‘green’ jobs can be regarded as those associated with environmental objectives and policies. Some definitions of ‘green’ jobs or related concepts focus on occupations and skills with an
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