12 Endurance And Ultra-endurance Athletes

26575 CH12 360-397.qxd9/21/0512:04 PMPage 364 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.order to perform well and recover completely fromworkouts.Even though the activity factors of 1.6–2.4 willcover most recreational and competitive athletes, therange may not estimate calories appropriately for allathletes. For example, cyclists participating in stagedraces that last from 1 to 3 weeks may burn caloriesin the 7,000–8,000 calorie per day range. If Bill, fromthe previous example, was a stage racing cyclist, toreach this calorie range, an activity factor of 4.3–4.9would be appropriate. On the other end of the spectrum, endurance athletes who want to lose weightmay find that an activity factor of 1.4–1.6 estimatesan appropriate calorie level. Therefore, use the calculation guidelines while also making individualizedadjustments for specific athletes.It can sometimes be challenging for athletes toincrease their daily intake to match their actual caloricneeds. Training, work/school, sleep, and other nonsport activities take time away from preparing andeating meals and snacks. Some athletes also complain about feeling too full and not being able tocomfortably add more calories to meet their needs.Also, strenuous effort during training or competition tends to decrease appetite, causing athletes toeat small meals and snacks. Athletes in these situa-tions are looking for quick, easy, and nutrient-denseways to increase their calories while enjoying theirfood and not spending all day in the kitchen. Mealplans should be created that fit the daily scheduleof the athlete and incorporate nutrient- and caloriedense meals/snacks that are within the cooking/preparation skills of the athlete.When planning meals for individuals needing toincrease calories, a balance of macronutrients is essential. If an athlete increases mainly carbohydrateand fiber-rich foods, the result is a feeling of fullnessand bloating. If protein-rich foods are the focus, theendurance athlete may neglect to fully replenish glycogen stores, ultimately hindering training and racing.Too many fat-rich foods can delay gastric emptying,potentially disrupting training sessions due to a senseof fullness, stomach cramps, or diarrhea. By balancing the macronutrients and increasing carbohydrates, protein, and fat in proportional amounts,athletes can reap the benefits of increasing total calorie intake while feeling good and performing well.Training Table 12.1 presents sample meal plans forthree different calorie levels—3,000, 4,000, and 5,000calories. Note that as the number of calories increases,the frequency of meals and snacks increases as dothe number of calorie-dense foods. Three meals plusTraining Table 12.1: Example Menu Plans for 3,000, 4,000, and 5,000 Calories3,000 CaloriesMeal/SnackFood/BeverageCarbohydrate Content (g)Breakfast2 cups raisin bran1 cup skim milk1 banana941228Lunch4 oz turkey and cheesesandwich6 oz low-fat yogurt1 4 cup trail mix1 plum1 apple273423921During workout20 oz sports beverage48Postworkout snack1 2 peanut butter sandwich12 oz chocolate milk1539Dinner2 cups pasta3 4 cup marinara sauce6 oz chicken breast2 cups steamed broccoli12 oz skim milk78150918Total Calories 2,973Total carbohydrates 470 g61% of total calories364CHAPTER 12 Endurance and Ultra-endurance Athletes

26575 CH12 360-397.qxd9/21/0512:04 PMPage 365 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.Training Table 12.1 Continued4,000 CaloriesMeal/SnackFood/BeverageCarbohydrate Content (g)BreakfastSmoothie:2 frozen bananas2 cups skim milk2 scoops protein powder552427SnackOrangeGranola bar1529Lunch2 cups chili4 oz roast beef sandwich2 cups fruit salad542561During workout32 oz sports beverage766 oz yogurt 2 cup dry cereal3413Dinner6 oz salmon2 cups wild rice3 cups salad with dressing16 oz skim milk0701724Snack11 2 cups frozen yogurt1 2 cup frozen blueberries739Total Calories 4,016Total Carbohydrates 606 g59% of total caloriesMeal/SnackFood/BeverageCarbohydrate Content (g)Breakfast2-egg omelet with cheese2 pieces of toast with 1 T butter12 oz orange juice54739Snack1 cup mixed nuts and raisins67Lunch2 hamburgers with buns16 oz skim milk2 pieces fresh fruit692452SnackSmoothie:2 cups frozen mixed fruit1 cup pineapple juice8 oz yogurt2 scoops protein powder42354627Postworkout snack15,000 CaloriesDuring workout48 oz sports beverageDinner2 pieces lasagna2 pieces garlic bread2 cups green beans and carrots16 oz skim milk75262224Snack8 oz skim milk3 oatmeal raisin cookies1223Total Calories 4,992114Total Carbohydrates 749 g59% of total caloriesAre total energy needs for endurance athletes different than for other types of athletes?365

26575 CH12 360-397.qxd9/21/0512:04 PMPage 366 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.several snacks distributes caloric intake throughout the day, preventing athletes from feeling “stuffed”or uncomfortable after eating. Calorie-dense foodsincrease energy intake considerably, without largeincreases in the volume of food consumed.How many calories should be consumed duringendurance training or competition?The number of calories expended while participating in endurance sports varies. The energy requirements for an individual can be estimated based onthe sport, the intensity and duration of activity, andthe body weight of the athlete. However, often it isnot physically or logistically possible for an athleteto fully match his or her energy expenditure with intake while exercising. Movement (e.g., running, biking), mental focus (e.g., mountain biking, race cardriving), and lack of feasibility (e.g., swimming, rowing) can create circumstances where athletes are unable to meet their calorie needs. It can not only beextremely challenging for an athlete to physicallyconsume enough food to match energy expenditureduring activity, but also difficult for the body to digestgaining the performance edgehigh volumes of food withoutdeveloping nausea or crampMatching energying. Therefore, it is more pracexpenditure during exercisetical and realistic to developwith energy intake may notbe practical or feasible fora plan based on the nutritionendurance and ultrabasics needed for enduranceendurance athletes. It isperformance: carbohydrates,more important to developfluids,and sodium.a nutrition plan that focusesFor example, a 125on the performancepound half-marathoner runrequirements ofcarbohydrates, fluids, andning a 6:30 minute/mile pacesodium rather thanwill burn approximatelyachieving energy balance.775 calories in 1 hour of continuous running.51 If this athlete were trying to match hisenergy needs by consuming a sports beverage (containing 50 calories per 8 ounces), he would need todrink 124 fluid ounces in 1 hour! An average rangeof fluid intake that can be consumed comfortablyand safely for most athletes is approximately 24–48ounces per hour—three to five times this amount isneeded to obtain 775 calories. However, if the nutrition plan was based on fluid and carbohydrateneeds, the requirements could be easily met. As mentioned in Chapter 3, it is recommended that athletesconsume approximately 1.0–1.1 grams of carbohydrates per minute during exercise. Therefore, thisathlete would need 60–66 grams of carbohydrates366CHAPTER 12 Endurance and Ultra-endurance Athletesper hour. Assuming the sports beverage used contains 14–15 grams of carbohydrates per 8 fluidounces, the runner would need to drink only about34 fluid ounces per hour to meet his carbohydrateneeds. Thirty-four fluid ounces per hour is muchmore manageable than 124 fluid ounces.How many calories are required after a training sessionor competitive event?A general guideline for endurance athletes is to consume 200–300 calories immediately following a training session or competitive event. This small snackshould be followed by a substantial meal withinthe next 1 to 2 hours, supplying more calories,macronutrients, micronutrients, and fluids. Two hundred to three hundred calories is not a large amountof food and can be easily obtained by eating half ofa sandwich, a large glass of milk, or a glass of 100%juice. Often, athletes complain of not wanting to eatimmediately following exercise—especially intenseexercise. However, the suggestion of consuming asmall snack versus a full meal is often perceived asmore manageable, is generally well-tolerated, andputs the recovery wheels in motion.Are macronutrient needs differentfor endurance athletes?The main difference between the diets of enduranceathletes and those of athletes in other sports is inthe quantity of food consumed, not necessarily themacronutrient composition of the diet. The extremecaloric demand of long-duration training, day in andday out, stresses the body’s energy reserves, particularly the glycogen stores. Therefore, carbohydratesplay a key role in the endurance athlete’s diet. Similar to other athletes with high calorie needs, dietaryfats are valuable for providing extra calories in a smallvolume of food. Another consequence of high calorie demands that is unique to endurance athletes isthe use of protein for energy production. Proteins arenot typically used by the body for energy production;however, they can play an energetic role, contributing up to 15% of the calories required during endurance and ultra-endurance sports. The bottom lineis that endurance athletes need the same macronutrients as other athletes except in larger quantities sothat the energy requirements of their sport can bemet. The upcoming sections will outline more specific recommendations and guidelines for carbohydrate, protein, and fat intakes for endurance andultra-endurance athletes.

26575 CH12 360-397.qxd9/21/0512:04 PMPage 367 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.How important are carbohydratesto endurance athletes?Carbohydrates are crucial to endurance athletes notonly because they are an important energy source,but also because carbohydrates play a role in therapid metabolizing of fats for energy. If the liver andmuscles are depleted of glycogen, the endurance athlete experiences extreme fatigue (see Figure 12.2 ).This is called “hitting the wall,” alsoknown as bonking. When bonking ocbonking A condition inwhich the endurancecurs the athlete can no longer generateathlete experiencesthe energy needed to maintain his orextreme fatigue and anher race pace and his or her perceptioninability to maintain thecurrent level of activity.of effort is greatly increased. The endIt is also known asresult is a catastrophic decrease in“hitting the wall” andperformance.results when the bodyhas depleted muscleCarbohydrate stores in the bodyand liver glycogenare limited, and because of the longlevels.duration and repetitive muscle activityinvolved with endurance training and sport performance, the need for carbohydrates is increased. Infact, the time to exhaustion during endurance exercise is directly related to the initial levels of storedglycogen in the muscles (see Figure 3.8 in Chapter 3).In addition, carbohydrates are also necessary fornormal functioning of the central nervous system.Maintenance of blood glucose levels is importantin preventing mental fatigue because nerve cells relyon blood glucose for energy. For these reasons, it isdifficult to overstate the importance of adequate carbohydrate intake for daily training as well as per-formance in competition. For the endurance athlete,carbohydrates are truly the “master fuel.”How are daily carbohydrate needs calculatedfor endurance athletes?Current daily carbohydrate recommendations forendurance athletes range from 5–10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight.8,40,41 Applying this recommendation for Tony, a moderatelyactive, 22-year-old male who weighs 150 pounds:150 pounds 2.2 68.1 kilograms (kg) of body weight68.1 kg 5–10 g of carbohydrate per kg 340–680 g of carbohydrates per dayThe recommended 340–680 grams is a largerange! To narrow the recommendation for practicalpurposes, the calculated carbohydrate requirementsneed to be compared to the total calorie requirementsof the athlete. Using the equation from Table 12.1,Tony’s calorie needs are estimated to be 2,753–3,442calories per day:1. REE (15.3 BW) 6792. REE (15.3 68.1) 679 1,7213. Tony’s total energy needs REE activity factor 1,721 (1.6–2) 2,753–3,442 calories per dayMuscle glycogen (mmol/kg)To establish a narrower range for a carbohydraterecommendation, determine the percentage of totalcalories coming from carbohydrates at each end ofthe spectrum. For example, knowing that each gramof carbohydrates has 4 calories, 340 grams of carbohydrates equals 1,360 calories, which is aboutMuscle glycogen (mmol/kg)50% of 2,753 calories. Endurance athletes shouldPerceived fatiguegenerally aim for 50%–65% of their total caloriesPerceived from carbohydrates. Therefore, the recommendafatigue200tion of 340 grams of carbohydrates providing 50%Muscle begins175of the estimated total daily calories is appropriate.Extremeto use bloodHowever, the high end of the carbohydrate rec150glucoseommendation would not be appropriate for a125Very2,753-calorie diet, supplying nearly 99% of total100calories (680 grams 4) 2,753) 100 99%!Liver glycogen75converted toEven at the high end of the estimated calorie rangeModerateglucose50(3,442 calories), 680 grams of carbohydrate wouldBlood glucosebe supplying 79% of the total calories, which is25depletiongenerally too high for a balanced daily diet. Ath001234letes should aim to meet both total calorie and carExercise time (h)bohydrate requirements while maintaining abalance of all macronutrients. RecommendationsFigure 12.2 Glycogen depletion and the sensation of fatigue. If theliver and muscles are depleted of glycogen, the endurance athletefor carbohydrates, as well as protein and fat, shouldexperiences extreme fatigue.always be compared to total calorie estimations.How important are carbohydrates to endurance athletes?367

26575 CH12 360-397.qxd9/21/0512:04 PMPage 368 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.How should endurance athletes carbohydrate loadbefore competition?Carbohydrate loading is often cited as an effectiveway of maximizing muscle glycogen stores prior toan endurance event. As noted earlier, increasing muscle glycogen levels can increase the time to exhaustion and thus prevent or delay bonking (see Figure 3.8in Chapter 3). In the 6 to 7 days leading up to a competition, endurance athletes should betapering and resting their muscles.tapering A scheduleddecrease in the volumeWhen tapering, endurance athletes deand intensity of trainingcrease the volume and intensity of their6 or more days prior totraining. During the taper, the percompetition. Thepurpose is to allow forcentage of carbohydrates consumedrecovery from trainingeach day should slowly increase fromand replenishment ofabout 45%–55% of total calories toglycogen stores in theliver and muscle.65%–70%. This progression allowsfor carbohydrate storage within themuscles to be maximized while training time is minimized. The combination of rest and a full fuel tankproduces an athlete who is mentally and physicallyfresh and nutritionally energized for race day.A carbohydrate intake of approximately 8–10grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight,or about 500–600 grams of carbohydrates per day,is required to maximize glycogen stores. However,a further increase in carbohydrate intake may notnecessarily further increase glycogen stores. Costillet al.8 found that glycogen stores were similar whenathletes consumed either 525 grams or 650 gramsof carbohydrates per day. This study suggests thatcarbohydrate intake greater than 600 grams per daymay not provide additional ergogenic benefits. Fora 150-pound athlete, a range of 8–10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight can be calculated as follows:1. Convert pounds to kilograms: 150 2.2 68.2 kg2. Calculate carbohydrate needs: 68.2 kg 8–10grams carbohydrates/kg 546–682 grams ofcarbohydrates per dayBecause research has shown that consumptionof greater than 600 grams of carbohydrates per daymay not be beneficial, it should be recommendedthat this 150-pound athlete consume 546–600 gramsof carbohydrates in the days leading up to a competition. If the athlete feels that energy is runninglow during workouts, or recovery is slow, then thegrams of carbohydrates can be increased graduallyuntil an ideal quantity within the range is realized.Training Table 12.1 uses the 3,000-, 4,000-, and368CHAPTER 12 Endurance and Ultra-endurance Athletes5,000-calorie per day example menus to demonstratethe quantity of food needed to reach approximately500–600 grams of carbohydrates per day.During a tapering period, the decrease in calorie expenditure in the days leading up to an eventneeds to be realized and factored into a carbohydrateloading plan. The percentage oftotal calories contributed bygaining the performance edgecarbohydrates should increasein the days leading up to anKeep in mind that thesuggested range ofevent, approaching 8–10 grams500–600 grams ofof carbohydrates per kilogramcarbohydrates is not anof body weight. However, dueabsolute number for allto a decrease in calorie needs,athletes. Daily nutritiontotal calories need to be cut inplans must be developedon an individual basis andorder to prevent weight gainrecommendations may falland a feeling of sluggishness.The best way to decrease calo- above or below this range.ries without sacrificing overallnutrition and the nutrients for recovery is to cut backon fat intake temporarily (until the event). Protein isneeded to repair muscle tissueand therefore should not be degaining the performance edgecreased dramatically in order toJuices, milk, smoothies, andcut calories. Because fiber intakeother liquid forms ofshould be moderated in the dayscarbohydrates are ideal forleading up to an event, juices,endurance athletes duringmilk, smoothies, and other liqa taper and carbohydrateuid forms of carbohydrates are loading.ideal for use during a taper.

26575 CH12 360-397.qxd9/21/0512:04 PMPage 369 Jones and Bartlett Publishers. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION.Athletes who are competing several times a weekdo not have time to taper for 7 days while increasing carbohydrate intake. These athletes should ensure an adequate consumption of carbohydrates ona daily basis, which can also effectively keep glycogen stores near their maximum.Should carbohydrates be consumed in the hoursor minutes prior to endurance activities?Research has demonstrated that consuming carbohydrates in the hours leading up to an endurancetraining session or competition is critical for optimal performance, especially during activitieslasting longer than 2 hours.9,17 Carbohydrates consumed prior to exercise increase blood glucose,which leads to a sparing of muscle and liver glycogen, thus enhancing endurance performance. Thequestion for endurance athletes is not if they shouldconsume carbohydrates prior to exercise, but ratherwhen and how many carbohydrates should beconsumed.Even though it appears obvious in the researchthat pre-exercise carbohydrate consumption canprevent fatigue, the reality is that many athleteschoose to forego consuming any food, including carbohydrates, prior to training or competitions. Athletes need to be educated on the detrimental effectsof this behavior. After an overnight fast, liver glycogen stores are depleted, which can lead to premature fatigue during exercise.35 Some athletes justifynot consuming carbohydrates before training because they plan to consume carbohydrate-rich sportsbeverages, gels, or bars du

lete. Elite endurance athletes exhibit remarkable aerobic power. They can sustain relatively high-velocity move-ments for hours that an untrained in-dividual may only be able to maintain for several minutes before fatiguing. Figure 12.1 muscular endurance The ability of a muscle or gro