Laser Plastic Welding Design Guidelines Manual
Laser Plastic WeldingDesign Guidelines ManualRev. 3.2By: Josh BrownMarketing Development RepresentativeLPKF Laser & Electronics12555 SW Leveton Drive, Tualatin, OR 97062jbrown@lpkfusa.com 503.454.4231
LPKF Laser & Electronics2011IntroductionThe Big FourThe purpose of this document is to outline thenecessary guidelines of laser plastic welding in orderto equip designers and engineers with theknowledge they require during the concept anddesign phase of new products.1. Laser Transparent Top LayerMost thermoplastic resins are laser transparent intheir natural state (no additives). Note that “lasertransparent” should not be mistaken for “opticallytransparent” since laser welding radiation sourcesare outside of the visible light spectrum for thehuman eye. In fact, most laser welding applicationstoday utilize a laser transparent top layer which isopaque to the human eye.Please understand these are only guidelines andeach specific application will have its own set ofnuances and variations from these guidelines. Werecommend you consult an LPKF specialist duringyour design process.Laser Welding ProcessLaser plastic welding is a method of bonding two ormore thermoplastic components together. Althoughthere are many methods for joining thermoplastics,laser plastic welding has a few clear advantages:higher joining quality, minimal resulting flash orparticulates, higher quality controls, less stress tothe component and can weld complex and intricateshapes.The process relies on passing laser energy throughan upper transmissive layer down to the surface ofthe lower layer where the energy is absorbed. Theresulting heat melts the plastics and creates a weldseam.The upper joining partner must be designedtransparent for wave lengths in the range of 808nm– 980nm, the lower joining partner absorbent forthis wavelength.There are several influences on the lasertransmission including but not limited to: additives(UV stabilizers, colorants, and heat stabilizers), fillers(glass fiber, carbon fiber, blowing agents) andthickness.Only a percentage of the laser energy needs totransmit through the top layer for the weldingprocess to occur, the rest of the energy will beabsorbed, reflected, and scattered before it reachesthe weld joint.A minimum transmission rate of 5% is required. Thisrate assumes your material measurement will betaken using an LPKF TMG device, as other companiesuse different measuring methods and will thereforerequire different transmission rate guidelines.2. Laser Absorbing Bottom LayerThe laser absorbent layer is responsible for turningthe remaining laser energy, once it has passedthrough the transparent top layer, into heat at thesurface of the absorbing layer.There are four important requirements for the laserwelding process to occur. These four points will beaddressed in detail in the following section.To make a plastic absorbent, the typical additiveused is carbon black at an amount usually between0.2 and 0.4% by volume. Most major resin2www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & Electronics2011manufactures use carbon black to make black resinseconomically.plastics colored with TO2 may not be able to absorbadequately.Ideally, the transmission rate of the absorbingpartner should read absolute zero. In this way all ofthe energy would stay at the surface of theabsorptive layer where it is required to create aweld. Darker colors will absorb more effectively thanlighter colors.However, the plastics company Orient has createda special additive that allows white coloring withoutthe use of titanium oxide, see Table B.2 on page 14for details.It is possible to weld two pieces of clear plastic toone another. There are two such methods for this. Aspecialized additive, called Clearweld , by theGentex company offers an optically clear additivethat is also laser absorbent.The second method does not require any coatings oradditives; instead a higher wavelength laser source isused. The focal depth, or waist of the beam, isplaced at the interface of the components and themajority of the energy being at the beam waist isabsorbed in both the upper and lower parts at theinterface.This is a very promising technology, offering a newrange of flexibility into laser plastic welding. Besidesclear-to-clear welds, butt welds and previouslyimpossible joints may now be able. However, cleartoclear laser welding comes with an entire set ofseparate guidelines and therefore requires specialconsiderations this document does not cover. Formore information on clear-to-clear welding pleasecontact an LPKF representative using the contactinformation at the end of this document.In regards to plastic coloring, the company BASF has an additive called Lumogen which is used tomake laser absorbent resin in a variety of colors.Colored laser transparent top layers are alsopossible.3. Material compatibilityThe two polymers, which are to be joined, must beof the same plastic family with similar resinproperties and melting temperatures to be joinedsuccessfully; otherwise one part may melt or burnand the other will be unaffected.It is safe to note that it is possible to weld the mostcommon thermoplastics, such as: PA 6, PA 66, POM,PBT, PC, ABS, PP and PE in their pure form.Table B.1 on page 13, outlines the miscibility andbond quality of various thermoplastics.4. ContactIt is paramount that heat energy, generated on thesurface of the lower layer, be transferred to theupper layer so that it may become molten as well. Inorder for conduction to occur the two layers need tobe in contact during the welding process to ensureproper heat conduction.Contact is accomplished with various methods ofclamping devices or special component designs(radial welds specifically); the Clamping Overviewsection will cover this in detail.Clamping will help minimize any gaps caused byimproper part design or tolerances, but every effortshould be made to have accurate parts prior towelding.A note about white plastics: most often white coloris created using titanium oxide (TO2) additives.Infrared laser light is highly reflective to TO2 and3www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & ElectronicsProcess MethodsLPKF systems utilize four main process types of laserplastic welding: contour, simultaneous, quasisimultaneous and hybrid. The laser staking methoddescribed below is actually a form of simultaneouswelding, but warrants separate mention.Contour WeldingIn this process the laser beam, focused into a point,moves relative to the component making a singlepass over the joint. The width of the joint line canvary from a few tenths of a millimeter to severalmillimeters. Contour welding is especially suited forlarge parts or three dimensional parts and radialwelding. Pros: very flexible, excellent process qualitymonitoringCons: slower cycle times compared to otherlaser process methodsSystems: Integration, Power, Vario or TwinWeld3DSimultaneous WeldingSimultaneous welding is where the entire weld seamis heated at the same time. Using specially designedfiber-optics, the laser energy is formed into thepattern of the weld seam and projected onto theentire seam simultaneously. There is no relativemovement of the laser or the device. This method isideal for high volume runs that require ultra-lowcycle times. Pros: fast cycle timesCons: expensive as multiple laser sources aretypically required, small working area (50mm x50mm), less precise process monitoringSystems: Integration, Power, Vario or SpotQuasi-Simultaneous WeldingQuasi-simultaneous welding is a combination ofcontour and simultaneous welding. A single, focusedlaser beam is guided by a mirror, tracing the weldpath multiple times at very high speeds. In this way2011the entire joint line is effectively heatedsimultaneously. Pros: fast cycle times, excellent processmonitoring, flexibleCons: For mainly two dimensional partsSystems: Integration, Power, VarioHybrid WeldingHybrid welding uses high-powered halogen lampenergy to assist the laser in the welding process. Thehalogen lamps pre-heat the plastic around the jointline, in effect requiring less laser energy to melt theplastic. The benefits of pre-heating are faster cycletimes as well as reduced part stress fromtemperature shock. The halogen light ispolychromatic so it will be absorbed by, and heat,both the upper and lower layers. Excellent process monitoring, increased cycletimes, uses less laser energy, improved gapbridging, increased seam strengthSpecs: halogen lamp projects an 8mm zonearound joint seamSystem: TwinWeld 3DImage 1 – Hybrid welding processLaser StakingLaser staking is an LPKF patented method and isactually a form of simultaneous welding. Laserstaking is essentially riveting using laser plasticwelding technology.4www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & ElectronicsCommonly used for fastening circuit boards toplastic housings, small plastic discs are positionedover a prong which projects through a mountinghole in the printed circuit board. Laser energy isapplied to the interface between the disc and theinjection molded prong. As pressure is applied theprong and disc fuse together to hold the circuitboard in place.2011Beam AccessibilityThe component and clamp tooling should bedesigned to allow adequate access of the laser beamto the weld seam.Obstructions, such as side walls or clamp tooling orwill block the laser entirely; while even channels,voids or molding gates within the plastic may resultin shadowing effects.Beam accessibility dimensions can be calculated asfollows: weld seam width (rib width) positionaltolerances dimensional tolerances.Where positional tolerance is the allotted movementof the component during clamping and dimensionaltolerance is the allotted size difference for variationsin sizes from component to component.Image 2 – Laser staking diagram Highlights: requires no contact with the delicateelectronics, clean, equipment is small and easilyintegrated into an existing production lineSystems: LQ-SpotPart Design and Joint ConfigurationBeam accessibility should also consider the coneshape of the laser beam and the beam angle.Because the beam is projected off of a set of mirrorsit can enter the plastic at an angle of 90 /- 15 .In the image below you can see a tapered side-wall,which had to be adjusted to account for beam shapeand angle.Please take the following factors into considerationwhen designing your component for laser plasticwelding.Overall Component SizeLPKF laser plastic welding systems can handlecomponents a few centimeters in size up to a total22workspace requirement of 1,200mm (47in ). SeeTable B.3 on page 14 of this document detailedworkspace specifications of each LPKF system.Weld Size and Spacing CapabilitiesLaser beam focal points sizes can range from 0.6mm– 3mm resulting in a weld seam width ofcorresponding size.Image 3 – tapered side-wall for beam accessibilityMolding gates should be designed outside of thejoint path, as variations in material density, at andnear these points, will cause fluctuations in the5www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & Electronicsamount of laser energy reaching the interface, inturn resulting in burns or underdeveloped areas inthe weld.Transparent Upper Layer ThicknessMaterial designed too thick may result in a lack ofenergy reaching the interface while material that istoo thin may not be strong enough or have enoughvolume to successfully absorb adequate heat forwelding.We recommend a thickness of 0.8 to 1.8mm.However, successful welds have been createdthrough higher and lower values dependent onmaterial combinations.A good rule to follow is to match the depth of thetop layer with the width of the raised rib (describedlater).It is recommended that the transmissive layer have aconsistent thickness. Fluctuations in thickness willaffect the amount of laser energy transmitted alongthe interface resulting in burning or underdevelopedseam spots.Melt-CollapseMelt-collapse, also called melt-travel or joint path, isthe distance the joining partners travel as they movetogether under clamping pressure. An ideal collapsewill fall in the range of 0.1mm to 0.5mm. Image 7 onpage 8 shows a common lap joint prior to meltcollapse. The following image, Image 8, is the samejoint after melt-collapse has occurred.Avoid trying to bond two flat plates together due tothe extreme amount of pressure required to havethe plates mate properly.2011Mechanical limiting stops are molded into one orboth of the joining parts. These will ensure aconsistent melt-collapse as well. These are notcommonly recommended as they may lead tointernal stress after the parts cool, see letter “G” ofImage 7 on page 8.Melt-collapse is a function of the amount of heatgenerated at the weld interface, the amount of timethat heat is applied and the clamping pressure. All ofthese factors can be user-controlled; however, it isthe user’s responsibility to determine the balance ofthese factors. For example: if a part is taking too longto reach adequate weld-collapse, burning of theplastic may result; this can be seen as tiny bubbles inthe weld seam indicating plastic vaporization. Insuch a case, increasing the clamping pressure willhelp ensure collapse within the allotted time frame.Weld flashWeld flash (or melt blow-out) results from expanded,un-fused material that leaks from the weld seam,see letter J of Image 7 on page 8.If weld flash is not acceptable for aesthetic orfunctional reasons, it is recommended that thefollowing techniques be employed:Melt covers can keep flash from escaping or enteringthe component where it is not wanted. Refer toletter “H” of image 7 for an example of this.A melt blow-out reservoir is essentially a small gapdesigned along the weld seam with adequate roomto collect the weld flash, letter “K of Image 8 on page8.If two flat pieces are to be joined, it is recommendedthat a raised rib be designed into the bottom piece.This rib will allow for melt collapse to take placewithout the need for extreme clamping pressure.See letter “F” of Image 7 on page 8.6www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & Electronics2011Clamping OverviewClamping pressure is necessary to ensure contact ofthe joining partners so conduction of energy fromthe absorptive partner to the transmissive partnercan take place.Also, as the polymers are excited by the laser energy,they will expand. If left un-clamped there will be nocontainment of the expanding polymers and fusionwill not occur.Each application will have customized clamp tooling.Clamping needs to be applied as close to the weldarea as possible without obstructing the laser. 0.5 to1.0mm should be allotted on both sides for clamptooling (dependent on clamping method, see below).Clamping pressure typically ranges from 2-4 MPa( 300-600psi). This pressure will be supported bylower component clamp tooling, often called nestsor workpiece holders.Image 4 – Transparent clamp toolingMetal clamp tooling – metal tooling is createdspecific to the joint pattern, flanking the seam oneach side. The tooling is attached to a transparentglass or acrylic piece where force is applied throughit to the metal tooling, see Image 5. Pros: component can have 3D surfaceattributes, better clamping pressure atseam, metal tooling will last longer Cons: contamination of acrylic/glass is stillpossible, more complicated toolingNests/Bottom Clamp ToolingNests are custom designed to fit the componentdimensions, providing support the entire length ofthe weld seam from the bottom.Top Clamp ToolingThere are a few different types of clamp tooling,dependent on your application one may better thanthe next.Transparent clamp tooling – a flat, clear piece ofglass or acrylic which applies pressure to the entiretop layer, see Image 4. Pros: simplest method, good forprototyping and small runsCons: component surface must be entirelyflat, tooling is easily contaminated by dustor particles which can result in burning ofthe component.Image 5 – metal clamp toolingDual clamping device (all metal) – the dual clampingdevice provides clamping on both sides of the weldseam and requires no acrylic/glass piece, see Image6. Pros: component can have 3D surfaceattributes, best clamping pressure at seam,7www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & Electronics 2011metal tooling will last longer, noacrylic/glass means no contaminationCons: most complicated tooling designImage 7 – Pre-CollapseImage 6 – dual clamping device (all metal)Other Clamping ConsiderationsIt is recommended that measures be taken duringthe design and injection molding phase to ensurethat warping is minimized and the joining parts fittogether well, without gaps. If gaps are present,burns, or loss of energy can occur at the interfaceresulting in poor weld quality.Image 8 below, represents a joint prior to meltcollapse. The distance of collapse is represented bythe letter E. Notice the un-collapsed raised rib (F)compared to the next image, Image 8, with acollapsed rib.The image below shows a joint after melt-collapsehas taken place. Notice the weld flash (J) from thecompressed plastic.Centering lugs, although not required, are designedto mechanically ensure accurate alignment of theupper joining layer to the bottom joining layer.A Basic Guide to Joint TypesCommon Joint TypesLaser plastic welding deals with two main types ofjoints: lap joints and radial joints. There are manyvariations of each, but these are the two joints mostcommonly used in laser plastic welding.Special Joint CharacteristicsImage 7 is also a lap joint, but has addedcharacteristics which enhance its design for the laserplastic welding process.Image 8 – Post-CollapseThese characteristics (marked as letters A-N in thefollowing images) are described in detail throughoutthis document; the legend on page 10 has referencesfor each corresponding characteristic.8www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & ElectronicsRadial JointRadial joints are used for cylindrical-shaped objects,such as joining tubing for catheters. Image 9, below,shows a pitcher with a welded lid, this weld processwould have taken place similar to the example inImage 11.2011which is preferred, as it is blocked by the top layer’sside wall. Also, the side wall will typically have to betapered to allow the angled laser beam access to thejoint, represented by the letter “L” in Image 10.Fixed Laser/Moving Part (preferred) – in this methodthe stationary laser beam enters from the side, whilethe part is rotated.Clamping pressure is not required, because thecontact and pressure requirements are solved by“tapering” the two pieces so the transmissive layer islarger in diameter than the transparent layer. Like asleeve, the transparent piece is forced onto thelower absorbing piece, the difference in size causesoutward pressure. This is called a press fit.Image 9 – Component with radial jointWhen making radial welds, there are two methods:fixed-part or fixed-laser.Fixed-part/moving laser – Image 10, below, is anexample of a stationary (fixed) component, wherethe laser will move relative to the part tracing outthe weld path.Image 11 – Fixed-laser methodAlso, notice that tapered side-walls are not required,indicated by M, as the laser beam is entering fromthe side.Image 10 – Fixed-part methodIn this method clamping pressure is applied, topdown, using clamp tooling from the side of the joint,as in indicated by I in the image above.Please take into consideration the press fit collapse,labeled as “N” on Image 11 above. There is nodifference between the press fit collapse and meltcollapse other than the fact that the joint part designneeds to ensure there is still outward pressure(created by size differences in the two parts) evenafter collapse has taken place.This method is not ideal, because clamping pressurecannot be produced on both sides of the weld seam,9www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & ElectronicsButt JointsButt joints, displayed in the image below, are nottypically used in laser plastic welding. This is becausethe laser beam cannot access the joint interface atthe correct angle.2011Laser welding opens up doors to complexcomponent shapes, because of the precise controlover the laser beam, applying energy only to theweld interface.With typical laser welding processes the laser sourcehas a fixed height above the component; height (zaxis) changes of complex joints cannot always beovercome because the laser beam’s focal point willvary dependent as height changes.The breakthrough TwinWeld 3D, robotic-armassisted welding system, moves the entire lasersource in relation to the component. Height changesare not an issue, because the laser source moves at aconstant height in relation to the weld jointregardless of z axis changes in the component.Image 12 – Butt jointJoint Design LegendTranslucent LayerAbsorptive LayerABCDEFGHIJKLMN-Beam accessibility, p.5Clamp tool spacing, p.8Top layer depthMelt cover widthMelt collapseRaised ribMechanical limiting stopsMelt coverClamp toolingWeld flashFlash/melt blow-out zoneTapered side-wallNon-tapered side-wallPress fit collapse toleranceImage 13 – TwinWeld 3D systemProcess ConsiderationsSpecial Shapes, Sizes and ApplicationsLaser plastic welding has great flexibility and fewerlimitations as opposed to other plastic joiningmethods.Below you will find some examples of extraordinaryapplications taken on by laser plastic welding.3D and Contour ShapesImage 13, above, shows an example of a 3D weld,using the TwinWeld 3D robotic arm assisted system.Notice the pressure is applied via a roller-armprojecting from the head of robot. In this casepressure and energy are applied only where needed,eliminating the need for expensive upper dies.Large ComponentsAgain due to the TwinWeld 3D technology, largecomponents can be welded easily. No longerrestricted by a fixed laser source, which can scanonly limited work areas, the TwinWeld work area10www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & Electronicscan be as large as the robotic arm is able to move,221,200mm (47in ).Small ComponentsThe precise nature of laser movements and its abilityto apply energy locally lends to the ability to weldvery small components or component features, suchas microfluidic devices.Delicate ComponentsUntil recently the only way to get a stress andparticulate free joint for a delicate component, suchas electronic sensors or microfluidic devices, wasgluing and adhesives. Other methods cause toomuch heat, leave damaging/contaminatingparticulates or put too much stress on the delicateparts.Laser welding solves all of these problems: heat islocalized to the joint so it will not affect circuitry ordelicate features, no particulates are created fromthe process to contaminate the component and partstress is reduced drastically as the only force appliedto the component is the static force of the clampingunit.Cycle Time ConsiderationsThe following process flow example will give you anidea of common steps to consider when estimatingcycle time for you project:1.2.3.4.5.6.7.2011welds require more heat to achieve acceptablecollapse); cooling time (longer welds require moreheat and in turn will take longer to cool).Joint Testing and InspectionAn initial visual inspection of the weld seam shouldindicate a great deal. A good weld should berelatively consistent in width and color, and free ofbubbles or voids.A secondary test is a simple pull test. After rippingthe layers apart, a good weld will be indicated by thepresence of absorptive layer material on thetransmission piece, consistently along the weldseam.Testing for hermetic seals – testing for hermeticsealing can be done with a variety of methods. Wesuggest the following: Physical/visual inspectionBurst pressure testSubmersion/bubble testingConsultation and Contact InformationPlease remember that this document is only aguideline to help get designers and engineersstarted. Every application is sure to have variancesfrom this document.We highly recommend consulting an LPKF laserplastic welding expert at some point in your initialconcept phase or to determine feasibility.Workpiece loadedClamping pressure engagedLaser onCoolingClamping pressure disengagedWorkpiece releasedTotal Cycle TimeStill not sure if laser plastic welding is the answer foryour application? We would love to help you findout. Contact us for consulting advice andinformation on sample/feasibility runs.It is impossible to give a universal quote, regardingcycle times, as each application will have manyvariables which will affect cycle time.Some variables to consider are: system type(manual/automated); the length of weld (longerPlease send inquiries to :Josh BrownMarketing Development Representativejbrown@lpkfusa.comPhone: 503.454.423111www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & ElectronicsHere are a few details we recommend havingavailable when you contact us: A basic summary of your applicationMaterialso Typeso Number of layerso ThicknessComponent detailso Overall sizeo Weld length 2011Desired cycle timeSeal requirementsOther requirements:o Strengtho Opticalo Functiono OtherWhat is your reason for considering laserplastic welding?AppendixChartsChart A.1 – Effects of Carbon Content on Laser TransparencySource: Welding Technologies presentation, Frank Krause, Lanxess, 200512www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF
LPKF Laser & ElectronicsChart A.2 – Transmission Rate at Different Material Thicknesses (Material BKV 30 H2.0 9404/0)Table B.1 – Plastic Compatibility and Weld Quality Table13www.lpkfusa.com/lq1-800-345-LPKF2011
LPKF Laser & Electronics2011Table B.2 – Common Additives by Type and Brand with Contact InformationAdditive - CompanyFirst NameWork Phone #EmailClearweld - GentexLee Ann Spaulding(570) 282-8648lspaulding@gentexcorp.comLaser Flare - Merck-EMDMatthew Gailey(912) ns - OpticolorRonald Radmer(714) 893-8839rradmer@opticolorinc.comPigmentations - OrientKeith T. Truzzolino(908) 298-0990keith@orient-usa.comTable B.3 – Working Field by System, LPKF Laser & nWeld 3DMetric (focus diameter)210 x 210mm110 x 110 mm45 x 45mm (.6mm)110 x 110 mm (1.2mm)154 x 154mm (1.3mm)45 x 45 mm110 x 110 mm154x 154 mm600 x 600mm1,200 x �� x 8”4” x 4”1.8” x 1.8” (23.6 mils)4.3” x 4.3” at (47.2 mils)6.1” x 6.1” at (51.2 mils)1.8” x 1.8”4.3” x 4.3”6.1” x 6.1”23” x 23”47” x 47”
follows: weld seam width (rib width) positional tolerances dimensional tolerances. Where positional tolerance is the allotted movement of the component during clamping and dimensional tolerance is the allotted size difference for variations in sizes from component to com
Keywords: Full factorial design (FFD), Laser welding, Mechanical properties, Optimization, Steel sheets 1. Introduction Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a modern welding process used to join multiple pieces of similar and dissimilar metal through the use of a laser beam. Laser welding is based on the interaction of laser light with matter.
Hybrid laser-metal inert gas (MIG) welding, by combin-ing laser welding and arc welding, can offer many advanta-ges over laser welding or arc welding alone. Some advantages are elimination of undercut, prevention of porosity formation, and modification of weld compositions [9-14]. In hybrid welding, compositions of base metal and
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6.3 Mechanised/automatic welding 114 6.4 TIG spot and plug welding 115 7 MIG welding 116 7.1 Introduction 116 7.2 Process principles 116 7.3 Welding consumables 130 7.4 Welding procedures and techniques 135 7.5 Mechanised and robotic welding 141 7.6 Mechanised electro-gas welding 143 7.7 MIG spot welding 144 8 Other welding processes 147 8.1 .
seam butt welding resistance butt welding flash butt welding resistance butt welding shielded unshielded other process plasma laser resistance butt welding inert gas welding submerged arc welding atomic hydrogen shielded metal arc welding (coated electrode) esepl w w w . e u r e k a e l e c t r o d e s .
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Laser plastic welding, a roughly decade-old assembly method, boasts its own resume of breakthrough applications. From micro-fluidic devices, created at unparalleled accuracy, to clean-room class V applications, impossible with other welding methods. Laser plastic welding is leaving a noticeable mark in the assembly world.
the welding processes most often used in today's industry including plasma arc cutting, oxyfuel gas cutting and welding, Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW), Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). Flat welding positions and basic joints will be practiced. Pipe and tube welding
