The Chemistry Of Food & Health: Molecules And Metabolism
The Chemistry of Food & Health:Molecules and MetabolismAn ACS-e! Discovery Report examining how food interacts with biochemistry to impact health, how foodscientists develop healthier food formulas, how chemical companies support the expanding supplementsmarket, and how analytical chemistry advances food safety and quality
The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and MetabolismTABLE OF CONTENTSI. INTRODUCTION: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2II. FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND WHOLE GRAINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3The “Mediterranean” Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Functional Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Metabolomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8III. PROCESSED FOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Sugar and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Artificial Sweeteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Engineering Healthier Processed Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12IV. FOOD ADDITIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Common Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Additive Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Natural Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Tailoring Nanoscale Food Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17V. SUPPLEMENTS AND FORTIFIED FUNCTIONAL FOODS . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Omega-3 Fatty Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Antioxidants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Gut Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19VI. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY FOR FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY . . . . . . . . .21Adulteration and Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Botanical Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23VII. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24VIII. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25ABOUT THIS REPORTThis report is for exclusive use by members of the American Chemical Society. It is not intendedfor sale or distribution by any persons or entities. Nor is it intended to endorse any product,process, organization, or course of action. This report is for information purposes only. 2015 American Chemical SocietyABOUT THE AUTHORMelissae Fellet has written about chemistry for New Scientist, Chemical & Engineering News andChemistry World. She graduated from the Science Communication program at the University ofCalifornia Santa Cruz and holds a Ph.D. in chemistry from Washington University in St. Louis.The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism1
I. INTRODUCTION:It’s clear that diet influences our health. Protein, sugar, fat, and nutrients in food providecomponents for biochemical cycles crucial to cellular function. Aberrant interactions amongthose cellular cycles can lead to disease, and poor nutrition is often cited as one reason for anincrease in chronic diseases that strain individuals, families, and societies.As of 2012, about half of American adults had at least one chronic health condition, likecancer, diabetes, or heart disease. According to the American Heart Association, 34 percent ofAmerican adults have metabolic syndrome, a collection of physical symptoms of biochemicalimbalances (such as a large waistline or high blood pressure) that increase a person’s risk forheart disease, diabetes, and stroke.Government agencies and medical associations provide dietary recommendations to helppatients manage some chronic conditions. A diet low in saturated fat is recommended tocontrol heart disease, and one low in salt is recommended to reduce blood pressure. Diabeticsmust watch the amount of sugar they consume, making dietary choices to control the amountof glucose in their blood and compensate for metabolic imbalances in insulin production.When looking for advice about eating to maximize health, there’s no shortage of dietrecommendations in the nutrition section of libraries and bookstores. The guidance variesfrom favoring meat to favoring vegetables to only eating raw food. Despite dietary differences,each approach carries a similar promise of vitality.The challenges of gathering comprehensive data from people about their diet and health makeit tricky to run scientific studies that connect specific diets -- or foods -- to health. Many studiescan only identify correlations between diet and disease. Academic, government, and corporatefood scientists trained in chemistry can provide information about another piece of the dietand health puzzle: the molecular relationships between food ingredients, nutrient composition,cellular function, and organism metabolism.Along with identifying components like fat, salt, and sugar that are detrimental to health,there’s a growing research focus on the beneficial components of food, as seen in publicationtrends from the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. In 2008, about 18% of papers aboutantioxidants came from manuscripts relating to healthy food, up from 5% in 1997.(1) Increaseswere also seen for papers about olive oil and red wine.Consumers are increasingly aware of a relationship between food and health, and are readingnutrition labels, avoiding particular additives, and consuming nutritional supplements. Foodscientists are responding to consumers’ demands by creating healthier food formulas. Thedemand also creates a market for fine chemical companies. Some are designing natural2The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism
alternatives to synthetic flavors, colors, preservatives, and texture components. Others areproducing pure ingredients for supplements.A final chemical connection between food and health is often most apparent when somethinggoes wrong: a shipment of produce contaminated with microbes or an adulterated foodproduct. Analytical chemists are working to develop methods to ensure food safety and qualityfrom the field to your shopping cart.II. FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND WHOLE GRAINSDietary guidelines in the United States recommend eating a variety of nutrient-dense fruits,vegetables, whole grains, beans, nuts, and lean meat. These foods have been linked to areduced incidence of chronic health conditions like obesity, heart disease, and diabetes.Scientific investigations of the connections between diet and health are challenging to designand interpret, and they often generate conflicting recommendations. One challenge comesfrom precisely identifying someone’s diet. Participants often under-report the types andamount of food consumed during a study period. Also, health effects, measured by trackingparticular diseases in a study population, can be difficult to detect or quantify. With heartdisease, for example, risk factors like high blood pressure or cholesterol levels can be measured.However, risk factors for other diseases like cancer are more difficult to identify.(2)Accurately interpreting the results of nutrition studies requires understanding a study’s designto know if the results imply that a particular diet is correlated with a particular health outcome,or if they suggest that diet causes the health outcome. Studies that identify correlationsbetween diet and health effects are called observational studies. The gold standard fordetermining causal connections between diet and health involves randomized controlledtrials where some participants change their diet in a particular way that others do not. Manynutrition studies are observational, though observation can fuel randomized trials.Once nutritionists identify beneficial foods through clinical trials, chemists then identify themolecular components of the food that provide the beneficial effects. Many of these moleculesbelong to a class of compounds called polyphenols.(3) These compounds are responsible forthe anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, or anti-cancer properties of foods like coffee, chocolate,red wine, and olive oil. Polyphenols, in the form of anthocyanins, also give berries their red,blue, or purple color. And foods may contain more polyphenols than researchers recognize. In2012, researchers in Spain noticed the portion of the dry weight of carob pods considered to bedietary fiber actually contained polyphenols that were insoluble in typical organic solvents.(4)Like their extractable relatives, these non-extractable polyphenols could influence gut health.The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism3
THE “MEDITERRANEAN” DIETIn 1958, the Seven Countries study started following 16 groups of participants from sevencountries, examining the effect of diet on risk factors for heart disease. The researchers foundthat people living in Crete, Greece, and southern Italy tended to live longer and have less heartdisease than populations from other countries.Further observational studies have confirmed the health benefits of a “Mediterranean diet”consisting of fruit, vegetables, olive oil, nuts, beans, and whole grains. This diet also containssmall amounts of meat and dairy, along with red wine in moderation. An analysis of clinicaltrials of the Mediterranean diet shows that it reduces some risk factors for heart disease, butconcludes more evidence is needed to study the effects of the diet in different populations.(5)Chemists are analyzing components of the Mediterranean diet, measuring the carbohydratesthat contribute to the dietary fiber content of whole grains and beans, tracking the fat contentof nuts, and classifying polyphenols in olive oil and red wine.Whole grains and legumes are important components of many diets around the world.They serve as complementary sources of protein, energy-providing carbohydrates, andsatiety-inducing fiber. There is significant evidence for a correlation between whole grainconsumption and lowered blood pressure. But there is limited evidence for a connectionbetween whole grains and reduced cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, or weight loss.(6)Whole grains are cereals that come from the Gramineae family of grasses. This family includeswheat, rice, barley, corn, rye, oats, millet, sorghum, and wild rice. Amaranth, buckwheat, andquinoa are considered pseudocereals, as they belong to a different family of plants.(6)A grain contains three components: the starchy endosperm, the fiber-packed outer layer ofbran, and an inner reservoir of nutrients called the germ. The bran and germ are removedwhen a grain is refined. Many commercial whole grain foods are reconstituted by addingcomponents of the bran and germ in the relative proportions found in the natural seed.(6)The structure of the grain may be important for its overall health benefits; bread made fromreconstituted whole grains produces the same spike in blood glucose as bread made fromrefined flours.(6)The bran and the germ of whole grains provide dietary fiber in the form of indigestiblepolysaccharides, oligosaccharides, and lignin. Observational studies suggest that fiber is animportant component in the connection between whole grain consumption and reduced riskfactors for obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. There is also some evidence that links wholegrains to reduced risk for colon cancer; one reason could be the nature of the polyphenols inwhole grains.(6) Polyphenols in whole grains travel to the colon attached to insoluble componentsof plant cell walls. Soluble phenols from fruits and vegetables, however, seep through the smallintestine and escape the digestive tract before reaching the colon. Whole grains are also a goodsource of protein, though they are low in the amino acid lysine. However, pulses – crops raisedsolely for dry grain – provide this amino acid, among others. That means beans and whole grains4The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism
are dietary complements; together, they provide about 65% of the world’s protein.(6) Someexamples of pulses include chickpeas, lentils, and dry beans.Starchy carbohydrates form the bulk of the weight of pulses. That starch is digested 45% slowerthan starch from cereal grains. The composition of legume starch, as well as its crystallinity,makes it harder to digest. However, the digestive troubles that some people associate withbeans is due to easily digested oligosaccharides like raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose, notthe slowly digested starches.(6) Pulses are also a good source of vitamins and minerals. Beanscontain enough folic acid, that two or more servings of some pulses can provide 100% of thedaily recommended amount.(6) Lentils, followed by red kidney beans and black beans, have thehighest amount of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory polyphenols.Uncooked beans contain enzymes, enzyme inhibitors, and lectin proteins that can reducethe bioavailability of nutrients. However, these biomolecules usually unfold and break downwhen the beans are cooked, and they can be beneficial on their own. For example, a lectinfrom kidney beans is used as antiretroviral therapy for patients infected with the humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV).(6) Randomized controlled trials link pulse consumption todecreased blood pressure and management of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.Dietary intervention trials show that pulses reduce cholesterol levels as well.(6)Other well-studied components in the Mediterranean diet are olive oil and red wine.Chemists have analyzed and classified the antioxidants and heart-healthy unsaturated fattyacids in olive oil.(7)Phenolic compounds in extra virgin olive oil and typical average values from 116 oil samplesReprinted in part from: J. Agric. Food Chem., 2010, 58 (10), pp 5991–6006Publication Date (Web): April 30, 2010 (Perspective)DOI: 10.1021/jf1007677Copyright 2010 American Chemical SocietyThe Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism5
Edwin Frankel, a food chemist at the University of California, Davis, recently reviewed dietarystudies involving the molecular components of olive oil.(8) He concluded that validatedanalytical methods are needed before the constituents of olive oil are linked to health effects.Epidemiological studies in the mid-1990s found a connection between decreased incidence ofheart disease in a French population, despite high consumption of saturated fats. The effectwas attributed to daily consumption of red wine, and since then many studies have soughtto learn more about this connection. The results, however, often conflict.(9) There are debatesover whether polyphenols or ethanol in wine confer more health benefits, though the twocomponents likely work together to reduce heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. Alcoholand polyphenols reduce clotting and inflammation. Alcohol increases the amount of highdensity lipoprotein, the “good” cholesterol that shuttles excess cholesterol out of the blood.Polyphenols also act as antioxidants. One polyphenol, resveratrol, has been linked to reducingtumors in animal models of many types of cancer.(9) It also extends the life spans of fruit fliesand worms. The compound has become a popular target for biotech companies, though thereis debate over the types of receptors that it activates.(10)FUNCTIONAL FOODSAlmonds, olive oil, andwhole grains are examples of“functional foods” that bringextra health benefits beyondbasic nutrition. Functionalfoods can also be fortified withvitamins, nutrients, or fattyacids, like calcium-enrichedorange juice, margarine withadded plant sterols, or foodfortified with folate (seeSection V).The anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant propertiesof strawberries, blueberries,and cranberries are thoughtto be due to the variety ofpolyphenols in these fruits.(11–16)New studies in animalsshow that polyphenols from6Simplified schematic of the influence of berry polyphenols oncell-signaling pathways in breast cancer.berries could also modulate cellReprinted in part from: J. Agric. Food Chem., 2012, 60 (23), pp5693–5708 DOI: 10.1021/jf204084fCopyright 2012 American Chemical Societychronic disease.(11)signaling pathways involved inThe Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism
Some foods naturally mitigate inflammation, which is a reaction of the immune system that cancause chronic tissue damage.(17) Inflammation is also linked to atherosclerosis, or hardening ofthe arteries, a condition that can lead to heart attacks and strokes over time. Inflammation hasalso been linked to cancer and obesity.High blood pressure affects aboutone-third of all American adults,according to the Centers forDisease Control and Prevention(CDC). Left untreated, it can causestroke, heart disease, and kidneyproblems. For patients with highblood pressure, dietary changesare a common prescription inplace of diuretics or drugs thatslow heartbeats, relax bloodvessels, or prevent the formationof a metabolite that narrowsblood vessels. The low-sodiumDietary Approaches to StopHypertension (DASH) diet wasshown through randomizedcontrolled trials to reduce bloodStructures of major groups of dietary polyphenols.Reprinted in part from: J. Agric. Food Chem., 2012, 60 (27),pp 6703–6717 DOI: 10.1021/jf3007008Copyright 2012 American Chemical Societypressure. Other foods, like coffeebeans, apples, and pears, containnatural compounds that lowerblood pressure.(18)Cholesterol is another dietarycomponent frequently associatedwith disease, though some is needed for several processes in the body. Cholesterol helpsto make fluid cell membranes. It’s also needed to synthesize bile acids that help absorb fatin the intestines. Finally, cholesterol is a precursor for the synthesis of vitamin D and steroidhormones. However, high levels of cholesterol in the blood are strongly correlated with heartdisease.Foods that lower cholesterol have several actions: inhibit cholesterol synthesis, activate receptorsthat remove cholesterol from the blood, and block cholesterol absorption.(19) Examples ofcholesterol-lowering functional foods include those rich in dietary fiber, which slows cholesterolabsorption. Red yeast rice, used in traditional Chinese medicine for circulation issues, hasbeen shown to lower cholesterol levels in humans comparable to levels in patients takingpharmaceutical statins.(19) More research is needed to determine its long-term effects, however.The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism7
Compounds in green tea called catechins alter cholesterol metabolism in cells and have beenshown to lower cholesterol levels in animal models.METABOLOMICSThe growing field of metabolomicsmight be able to provide somedetailed insight into the molecularconnections between food andhealth. This technique usesadvanced molecular analysis tomeasure metabolites in a sampleof blood, tissue, or urine. Patternsrevealed by the type and amountof compounds in a sample provideinformation about the workings ofStructure of green tea catechins.J. Agric. Food Chem., 2008, 56 (19), pp 8761–8773DOI: 10.1021/jf801566rCopyright 2008 American Chemical Societya patient
2 The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism The Chemistry of Food & Health: Molecules and Metabolism 3 alternatives to synthetic flavors, colors, preservatives, and texture components. Others are producing pure ingredients for supplements. A final chemical connection between food and health is often most apparent when something
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