A Landowner's Guide To Building Forest Access Roads
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - IntroductionUnited StatesDepartment ofAgricultureForest ServiceNortheasternAreaState andPrivate ForestryNA-TP-06-98Radnor PAJuly 1998.Introduction.Road Planning and Location.Know the Land.Map Out the Road Location. Field Check the Road Location.Control Points.Curves.Horizontal Curve Layout.Center Stake Method.Stick Method.Adjusting for Topography and Grade.Switchbacks.Grade Separation and Vertical Curves.Points to Remember.Other Considerations.Turnouts and Turnarounds.Road Cross-Sections.Right-of-Way Agreements.Stream Crossing Methods.Pipe tecting Fish Habitat.Round Culvert.Pipe-Arch Culvert.Structural Plate-Arch Culvert.Culvert Outfall Barriers.Structures for Debris Control.Recommendations for Wetland Forest Roads.General Planning and Design.Construction.Crossing Mineral Soil Wetlands.Crossing Shallow Peat Wetlands.Crossing Deep Peat hip/accessroads/accessroads.htm (1 of 2)11/23/2004 7:38:53 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Introduction.Road Construction.Road Width.Clearing.Road Drainage Methods.Water Bars.Broad-Based Drainage Dips.Ditches.Outsloping.Deflectors.Open Top and Pole Culverts. .Shaping Back Slopes. Seeding and Mulching.Seeding.Mulching.Methods for Crossing Wetlands Using.Geotextiles.Log Corduroy.Rock Drainage Layer.Lightweight Road Fill.Crossing Wetlands in Winter.Road Maintenance and Closure.Road Maintenance.Clearing Culverts and Ditches.Removing Slide Debris.Road Closure.Temporary Roads.Permanent Seasonal Roads.References.Dealing With ement.Transmission.Glossary.Conversion p/accessroads/accessroads.htm (2 of 2)11/23/2004 7:38:53 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - IntroductionRoads provide needed access to small woodlots; however, high costs, land disturbance, degradation ofwater quality, and destruction of fish habitat can all result from poor development, construction, andmaintenance of forest roads. This guide was developed to give private owners of small woodlots thebasic information needed to avoid these problems and protect valued natural resources.This guide is designed for landowners in the northeastern United States who will use a tractor andordinary earth moving equipment to build the simplest access roads on their property, or who willcontract for these services. Logging roads on small woodland properties are usually constructed by thelogging contractor, sawmill operator, or by a road contractor.This guide applies to low-speed forest roads with a 12-foot-wide running surface that are needed onlytemporarily or only during certain times of the year. Recommendations in this guide cover basicplanning, construction, drainage, maintenance, and closure of such forest roads. The recommendationsincorporate best management practices, which are designed to reduce nonpoint-source pollution, ascan occur during road building.This guide also covers special situations involving water that require individual consideration: streamswith or without migratory fish, beaver ponds, and wetlands. Each of these situations is covered in aseparate section. Landowners should read each section that applies to their land.Geotextiles are also described in a separate section. These synthetic permeable materials can be usedduring road building in a variety of ways, from providing standard drainage to performing specializedfunctions in wetlands. Using the information in this guide, landowners can complete road buildingprojects to their satisfaction. They can also save on the cost of construction and future maintenance byunderstanding what is involved and by being able to provide information to a contractor.Sections of this guide were adapted from other sources:Road Planning and Location, from Darrach et al. (1981) and Haussman and Pruett (1978);Protecting Fish Habitat, from Furniss et al. (1991);Recommendations for Wetland Forest Roads, from Minnesota Department of Natural Resources(1995);Dealing With Beaver, from Buech (1985), D’Eon et al. (1995), Wood and Woodward (1992), and Woodet al. (1994); andGeotextiles, from Amoco Fabrics and Fibers Company (1994a,b).Return to A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads Table of hip/accessroads/intro.htm11/23/2004 7:39:54 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and LocationPlanning and location are the mostimportant aspects of roaddevelopment. Poor planning orlocation is associated with thefollowing most common causes ofroad failure (Furniss et al. 1991):Improper placement and constructionof road fillsInsufficient culvert sizesVery steep road gradesImproper placement or sidecast ofexcess materialsRemoval of slope support byundercuttingAltering drainage by interception andconcentrating surface and subsurfaceflows.Because roads are long-term features,their location must be carefullychosen, to meet the landowner’s needfor safe access, avoid long-termmaintenance problems, reducepotential for degrading water quality,and minimize costs over the short andlong term. At a minimum, roadlocations should be flagged andapproved by the landowner in advanceof any construction, including alltemporary road locations.Poor roadlocation canconcentraterunoff, whichresults inincreasedsedimentation,and can havelong lastingeffects andcreate longterm roadmaintenanceproblems(Furniss et al.1991).This section on road planning and location tells you how to map out a road, then how to field check thelocation and how to mark it on the ip/accessroads/location.htm (1 of 12)11/23/2004 7:41:06 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and LocationThe key to good road planning is to gather as much information as possible on the area to which accessis needed. If subcontracting for road building, this recommendation still applies. The subcontractorgenerally will not know the area as well as you do. In most cases, maps and soils information areavailable. Contour maps are useful on all but the flattest terrain and can usually be obtained from local,county, or State governments. They are also available from the U.S. Geological Survey. The USDANatural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) will be able to provide soils information for your area.When initially requesting maps, also request information from the State or county about rights-of-wayrequirements if the proposed road has the potential of entering onto a State or county road. Thenecessary right-of-way requirements can be met as you proceed in the planning process.After gathering the maps and related information, indicate control points on the maps. A control point issimply a land feature that limits your choice of road location. Control points can force a road through agiven location or prevent the road from being built in a given location. The following is a list of controlpoints with some general comments about each one. The list is not all-inclusive and is not intended to be.Rock outcrops—Cross above or below these. If you have to go through them, see if the rock can beripped or broken because this will be less costly than blasting.Ridges—These provide good road locations.Saddles—Look for these as points to cross ridges.Benches—These are good road locations and also provide a good point for location of junctions,switchbacks, and landings.Wet meadows—Avoid. If they have to be crossed, see the section on Recommendations for WetlandForest Roads.Sinkholes—Avoid.Beginning and ending of road—Usually known.Property lines—Be sure of property line locations.Streams—Avoid crossing streams, if practical. If unavoidable, look for the best places to cross,considering the following (Furniss et al. 1991): Always cross at right angles. Cross at points where the stream is narrow. Minimize the number of crossings. Do not build in the bottom of a draw. Leave a buffer zone of undisturbed ground between the road and streambed, where the road runsparallel to the ip/accessroads/location.htm (2 of 12)11/23/2004 7:41:06 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and LocationTable 1 gives recommended buffer widthsfor Minnesota, which are consistent withthe recommendations of Haussman andPruett (1978) for the northeastern UnitedStates. Since recommended buffer widthsvary, check the regulations in your State.Table 1. Recommended buffer widthsApproaches to public roads and. highways, power lines, or othereasements—State, Federal, and countyregulations require permits to enter publicroadways. Locations of approaches maybe restricted for safety or other reasons.Road access easements need to bechecked and approved before you proceedany further.Slope of the landbetween road and stream(percent)Recommended bufferwidth in feet (slopedistance*)0 - 105011 - 2051 - 7021 - 4071 - 11041 - 70111 - 150*For roads, slope distance is measured from the edgeof soil disturbance. For fills, slope distance is measuredfrom the bottom of the fill slope.Other items to consider, which are too broad to be called control points, are aspect and soils.Aspect—South- and west-facing slopes will usually be drier and free of snow sooner in spring. Thismay be a minor consideration in your area depending on soils, precipitation, and topography.Soils—Check the local soil survey to determine the types of soil in your area. Determine which soilcharacteristics react to road building and how. The county engineer or NRCS engineer can answerquestions on soils in your area. Certain plants give an indication of problem soils. Contact your Stateagronomist for information on indicator plants for problem soils. NRCS may also have informationavailable on plant identification.As these control points are found, locate them on a contour map and label them. You may not find all thecontrol points in the initial investigation, so you should update your map as you progress through theplanning process.Using the contour map, pencil in a tentative roadlocation using your beginning and ending pointsas a start. Draw the road in the desired locationthat accesses the desired area making surecontrol points are either hit or missed.Remember, control points can be points wherethe road should go or places to avoid (Figure 1).Once you have mapped a tentative road locationdetermine the grade of the road. See Figure 1,for example. This will give you a rough idea ofhow steep the road will be and will point outsections of road where the grade may be toosteep. If the grade is too steep, move the roaduntil a satisfactory grade is obtained. Look forany additional control points you were not awareof and add them to the maps. Determine ccessroads/location.htm (3 of 12)11/23/2004 7:41:06 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and Locationgrade for each road segment between controlpoints, using either topographic maps or thefollowing formula for determining average gradefor the entire road.Elevation differencebetween segments of road----------------------------------- grade x 100 % gradeLength of roadFigure 1. Map out the road by locating and labelingcontrol points on a contour map, which allows you tocheck the road grade.Grade problems will be evident at this point. If asegment shows a grade greater than 12 percentfor over 300 feet, consider another road location.Under good conditions, the road grade would beless than 8 percent. When necessary, however,short steep pitches under 300 feet in length areacceptable.Road InformationA-1Elevation at beginning (feet)Elevation at end (feet)Rise (feet)Length (feet)Grade 510,5004,6003,3002.0-1.01.7Begin field checking the road location after it is mapped, by locating on the ground all the control pointsindicated on the map. This field check involves tying ribbon along the proposed location. The ribbonlocation is called the tagline, which is located on the approximate grade as drawn on the map. An abneyor clinometer that shows percent grade will be needed to transfer the mapped road to the ground. Ifthese other tools are not available, the grade meter at the back of this guide can be used (West VirginiaDep. Agric., no date).To locate your tagline use a clinometer or abney and tie ribbons at eye level. Move ahead towards thenext control point and look back to the previous ribbon, then tie another ribbon at eye level or at theheight of the instrument being used. Distance can be determined from the accessroads/location.htm (4 of 12)11/23/2004 7:41:06 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and LocationTwo types of curves are commonly foundin roads: horizontal and vertical curves. Ahorizontal curve is needed where the roadchanges direction. If the direction changeis dramatic, the curve will need to be largeenough to allow a log truck to negotiatethe turn. A vertical curve is created wherethe grade changes from downhill to uphillor uphill to downhill. Planning verticalcurves is also important because they canbe made so abrupt that a log truck couldhigh center at a crest. Some simplemethods for laying out curves follow.Certain circumstances requireswitchbacks, which are also described indetail.Figure 2.The center stake method of creating a horizontalcurve is limited to use on gentle terrain with good visibility.(Redrawn from Figure 2.4-1, Darrach et al. 1981)Horizontal Curve LayoutTwo simple procedures are described for creating a horizontal curve. The first is the center stake method;the second is the stick method. The center stake method is limited to gentle terrain and good visibility. Thestick method is more suited to difficult sites.A curve should always meet the minimum turningrequirements of the vehicles expected to use the road.Log trucks require a minimum of a 50-foot radius curve.Flatbed trucks used to haul heavy equipment (lowboys)must have at least a 70-foot radius curve. Grade shouldbe adjusted through the curve to provide for safehandling of heavy equipment. See Table 2 for gradeadjustments.Table 2. Suggested reductions in grade bycurve radiusRadius (feet)Reduction in grade(percent)150 to 460190 to 150265 to 90350 to 654Center stake methodUsing a string or tape the length of the radius, find thecenter of the curve by trial and error (Figure 2). Do thisby moving back and forth along the straight roadsegments (tangents) leading into and out of the curvewith the tape at a right angle to the road until acommon point, the center, is found. Now scribe an arcalong the ground marking the curve. Place stakes atsuitable intervals to mark the curve starting at the pointof curvature (PC) and ending at the point of tangency(PT)Source: Table 2.4-1, Darrach et al. accessroads/location.htm (5 of 12)11/23/2004 7:41:06 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and LocationFigure 3. The stick method of creating ahorizontal curve is suited to use on difficultterrain. (Redrawn from Figure 2.4-2, Darrachet al. 1981)Curve Layout—Stick Method(Refer to Figure 3)1. Using Table 3, select a suitable stakingdistance and matching stick length for thedesired radius curve. Mark your stick tothe correct length.2. Set stake A at the beginning of the curveand extend line BA the chosen stakingdistance (either 25 ft or 50 ft) to temporarystake C.3. Using your marked stick, set stake D at aright angle to line AC. Stake D is a pointon the curve.4. Set stake E so that line AE equals thestaking distance, and line ED is at a rightangle to AE and ED is the stick length.5. Extend line AE the staking distance fromstake E. Set stake F. Stake F is a point onthe curve.6. Return to stake D and repeat steps 4 and5. Continue returning each time to theprevious point on the curve until the curveis complete.Table 3. Stick lengthCurve radius(feet)—————Stake distance25 feet 50 pubs/stewardship/accessroads/location.htm (6 of 12)11/23/2004 7:41:06 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and LocationSource: Table 2.4-2, Darrach et al. 1981*To convert tenths of feet to inches, multiplythe decimal fraction by 12; for example, 0.7feet 12 8.4 inches.Bisecting an angle1. Place stake 1 at intersection point.2. Measure equal distances along taglinesfrom stake 1 and set stakes D and E.3. Halfway between stakes D and E along astraight line, place stake 2.4. The line between stakes 1 and 2 bisectsthe angle.Constructing a right angle1. Set stake 3.2. Set stakes A and B equal distances fromstake 3.Figure 4. A switchback is needed when astraight road would exceed maximum acceptablegrade. (Redrawn and adapted from Figure 2.4-3,Darrach et al. 1981)3. Set stake C so that lines AC, BC, and ABare equal length.4. Line 3, 3A is at right angles to line 2-3.Constructing a Switchback(Refer to Figure 4)1. Stake the point of intersection (PI) of the two grade lines, stake 1.2. Bisect the intersection angle (see directions above) and set stake 2 on the line, the distance of acurve radius from (PI) along the line that bisects the angle.3. Place stake 3 where a right angle line equal to curve diameter just touches the two grade lines.Set stakes 3A and 3B.4. From the upper tagline, run a new grade line back to the curve from stake 3A at approximately 2percent less than the tagline grade. Where this new line reaches the extension of the right angleline from stake 2, set a new stake 4.5. Measure the radius distance along the right angle line from stake 4 and place a stake 5 for thenew center of the curve.6. Mark out a curve using the center stake 5 until the extended right angle line from stake 2 is againreached. Set stake cessroads/location.htm (7 of 12)11/23/2004 7:41:06 AM
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and Location7. From stake 6, run a grade line that will reach stake 3B along the lower side of the curve.8. Note: distances measured are horizontal (correct for slope using Table 4). Construct a right angle(see directions above).Stick methodSimple curves may be staked on the ground with a stick and a tape. For directions see the box on CurveLayout—Stick Method. Using a 25- or 50-foot staking distance, consult Table 3 for the proper stick lengthto set the radius shown. Figure 3 shows the process.Table 4. Slope corrections in feet per foot forpercent slopes*Slope (percent)Correction for1 foot slope 31901.35951.381001.411051.45Adjusting for Topography and GradeThe horizontal curve layout description assumes thearea is flat. Seldom is this the case. Measurementsof length must then be adjusted to compensate forslopes.Where the distance being measured is short, thetape can be held level for one measurement of theentire distance. Where the distance is longer thanconvenient for this leveling method, measure thedistance in segments. Adjust the measured slopelength by using Table 4.Grade may be maintained around the curv
A Landowner's Guide to Building Forest Access Roads - Road Planning and Location Planning and location are the most important aspects of road development. Poor planning or location is associated with the following most common causes of road failure (Furniss et al. 1991): Improper placement and construction of road fills Insufficient culvert sizes
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