Structured Query Language - Halvorsen.blog
https://www.halvorsen.blogStructured Query LanguageHans-Petter HalvorsenAvailable Online: https://www.halvorsen.blog
Structured Query LanguageHans-Petter HalvorsenCopyright 2017https://www.halvorsen.blog
Table of Contents12Introduction to SQL . 61.1Data Definition Language (DDL). 81.2Data Manipulation Language (DML) . 8Introduction to SQL Server . 92.13SQL Server Management Studio . 102.1.1Create a new Database. 112.1.2Queries . 12CREATE TABLE . 133.1Database Modelling . 153.2Create Tables using the Designer Tools . 173.3SQL Constraints . 173.3.1PRIMARY KEY . 183.3.2FOREIGN KEY . 193.3.3NOT NULL / Required Columns . 223.3.4UNIQUE . 233.3.5CHECK . 253.3.6DEFAULT . 273.3.7AUTO INCREMENT or IDENTITY . 283.4ALTER TABLE . 294INSERT INTO . 315UPDATE . 333
4Table of Contents6DELETE . 357SELECT . 377.1The ORDER BY Keyword . 397.2SELECT DISTINCT . 407.3The WHERE Clause . 407.3.1Operators . 417.3.2LIKE Operator . 417.3.3IN Operator. 427.3.4BETWEEN Operator . 427.4Wildcards . 427.5AND & OR Operators . 437.6SELECT TOP Clause . 447.7Alias . 457.8Joins . 457.8.18Different SQL JOINs . 46SQL Scripts . 488.1Using Comments . 488.1.1Single-line comment . 488.1.2Multiple-line comment . 488.2Variables . 498.3Built-in Global Variables . 508.3.18.4@@IDENTITY . 50Flow Control . 518.4.1IF – ELSE . 518.4.2WHILE . 528.4.3CASE. 53Structured Query Language (SQL)
5Table of Contents8.4.49CURSOR . 54Views . 569.110Using the Graphical Designer . 57Stored Procedures . 6110.111NOCOUNT ON/NOCOUNT OFF . 64Functions . 6611.1Built-in Functions . 6611.1.1String Functions . 6611.1.2Date and Time Functions . 6711.1.3Mathematics and Statistics Functions . 6711.1.4AVG() . 6811.1.5COUNT() . 6811.1.6The GROUP BY Statement. 6911.1.7The HAVING Clause . 7011.2User-defined Functions . 7112Triggers . 7213Communication from other Applications . 7513.1ODBC . 7513.2Microsoft Excel . 7614References . 78Structured Query Language (SQL)
1 Introduction to SQLSQL (Structured Query Language) is a database computer language designed for managingdata in relational database management systems (RDBMS).SQL, is a standardized computer language that was originally developed by IBM for querying,altering and defining relational databases, using declarative statements.SQL is pronounced /ˌɛs kjuː ˈɛl/ (letter by letter) or /ˈsiːkwəl/ (as a word).What can SQL do? SQL can execute queries against a databaseSQL can retrieve data from a databaseSQL can insert records in a databaseSQL can update records in a databaseSQL can delete records from a database6
7Introduction to SQL SQL can create new databasesSQL can create new tables in a databaseSQL can create stored procedures in a databaseSQL can create views in a databaseSQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and viewsEven if SQL is a standard, many of the database systems that exist today implement theirown version of the SQL language. In this document, we will use the Microsoft SQL Server asan example.There are lots of different database systems, or DBMS – Database Management Systems,such as: Microsoft SQL Servero Enterprise, Developer versions, etc.o Express version is free of chargeOracleMySQL (Oracle, previously Sun Microsystems) - MySQL can be used free of charge(open source license), Web sites that use MySQL: YouTube, Wikipedia, FacebookMicrosoft AccessIBM DB2Sybase lots of other systemsIn this Tutorial, we will focus on Microsoft SQL Server. SQL Server uses T-SQL (Transact-SQL).T-SQL is Microsoft's proprietary extension to SQL. T-SQL is very similar to standard SQL, butin addition it supports some extra functionality, built-in functions, etc.Structured Query Language (SQL)
8Introduction to SQLOther useful Tutorials about databases: Introduction to Database SystemsDatabase Communication in LabVIEWThese Tutorials are located at: https://www.halvorsen.blog1.1 Data Definition Language (DDL)The Data Definition Language (DDL) manages table and index structure. The most basicitems of DDL are the CREATE, ALTER, RENAME and DROP statements: CREATE creates an object (a table, for example) in the database.DROP deletes an object in the database, usually irretrievably.ALTER modifies the structure an existing object in various ways—for example, addinga column to an existing table.1.2 Data Manipulation Language (DML)The Data Manipulation Language (DML) is the subset of SQL used to add, update and deletedata.The acronym CRUD refers to all of the major functions that need to be implemented in arelational database application to consider it complete. Each letter in the acronym can bemapped to a standard SQL statement:OperationCreateSQLINSERT INTORead (Retrieve)UpdateDelete (Destroy)SELECTUPDATEDELETEDescriptioninserts new data into adatabaseextracts data from a databaseupdates data in a databasedeletes data from a databaseStructured Query Language (SQL)
2 Introduction to SQL ServerMicrosoft is the vendor of SQL Server.We have different editions of SQL Server, where SQL Server Express is free to download anduse.SQL Server uses T-SQL (Transact-SQL). T-SQL is Microsoft's proprietary extension to SQL. TSQL is very similar to standard SQL, but in addition it supports some extra functionality, builtin functions, etc. T-SQL expands on the SQL standard to include procedural programming,local variables, various support functions for string processing, date processing,mathematics, etc.SQL Server consists of a Database Engine and a Management Studio (and lots of other stuffwhich we will not mention here). The Database engine has no graphical interface - it is just aservice running in the background of your computer (preferable on the server). TheManagement Studio is graphical tool for configuring and viewing the information in thedatabase. It can be installed on the server or on the client (or both).9
10Introduction to SQL Server2.1 SQL Server Management StudioSQL Server Management Studio is a GUI tool included with SQL Server for configuring,managing, and administering all components within Microsoft SQL Server. The tool includesboth script editors and graphical tools that work with objects and features of the server. Asmentioned earlier, version of SQL Server Management Studio is also available for SQL ServerExpress Edition, for which it is known as SQL Server Management Studio Express.A central feature of SQL Server Management Studio is the Object Explorer, which allows theuser to browse, select, and act upon any of the objects within the server. It can be used tovisually observe and analyze query plans and optimize the database performance, amongothers. SQL Server Management Studio can also be used to create a new database, alter anyexisting database schema by adding or modifying tables and indexes, or analyzeperformance. It includes the query windows which provide a GUI based interface to writeand execute queries.When creating SQL commands and queries, the “Query Editor” (select “New Query” fromthe Toolbar) is used (shown in the figure above).With SQL and the “Query Editor” we can do almost everything with code, but sometimes it isalso a good idea to use the different Designer tools in SQL to help us do the work withoutcoding (so much).Structured Query Language (SQL)
112.1.1Introduction to SQL ServerCreate a new DatabaseIt is quite simple to create a new database in Microsoft SQL Server. Just right-click on the“Databases” node and select “New Database ”There are lots of settings you may set regarding your database, but the only information youmust fill in is the name of your database:Structured Query Language (SQL)
12Introduction to SQL ServerYou may also use the SQL language to create a new database, but sometimes it is easier tojust use the built-in features in the Management Studio.2.1.2QueriesIn order to make a new SQL query, select the “New Query” button from the Toolbar.Here we can write any kind of queries that is supported by the SQL language.Structured Query Language (SQL)
3 CREATE TABLEBefore you start implementing your tables in the database, you should always spend sometime design your tables properly using a design tool like, e.g., ERwin, Toad Data Modeler,PowerDesigner, Visio, etc. This is called Database Modeling.The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.Syntax:CREATE TABLE(column name1column name2column name3.)table namedata type,data type,data type,The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold.13
14CREATE TABLEYou have special data types for numbers, text dates, etc.Examples: Numbers: int, floatText/Stings: varchar(X) – where X is the length of the stringDates: datetimeetc.Example:We want to create a table called “CUSTOMER” which has the following columns and datatypes:CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER(CustomerId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE,LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,)GOBest practice:When creating tables you should consider following these guidelines: Tables: Use upper case and singular form in table names – not plural, e.g.,“STUDENT” (not students)Columns: Use Pascal notation, e.g., “StudentId”Primary Key:o If the table name is “COURSE”, name the Primary Key column “CourseId”, etc.Structured Query Language (SQL)
15CREATE TABLE“Always” use Integer and Identity(1,1) for Primary Keys. Use UNIQUEconstraint for other columns that needs to be unique, e.g. RoomNumberSpecify Required Columns (NOT NULL) – i.e., which columns that need to have dataor notStandardize on few/these Data Types: int, float, varchar(x), datetime, bitUse English for table and column namesAvoid abbreviations! (Use RoomNumber – not RoomNo, RoomNr, .)o 3.1 Database ModellingAs mention in the beginning of the chapter, you should always start with database modellingbefore you start implementing the tables in a database system.Below we see a database model in created with ERwin.With this tool we can transfer the database model as tables into different database systems,such as e.g., SQL Server. CA ERwin Data Modeler Community Edition is free with a 25 objectslimit. It has support for Oracle, SQL Server, MySQL, ODBC and Sybase.Structured Query Language (SQL)
16CREATE TABLEBelow we see the same tables inside the design tool in SQL Server.Structured Query Language (SQL)
17CREATE TABLE3.2 Create Tables using the Designer ToolsEven if you can do “everything” using the SQL language, it is sometimes easier to do it in thedesigner tools in the Management Studio in SQL Server.Instead of creating a script you may as well easily use the designer for creating tables.Step1: Select “New Table ”:Step2: Next, the table designer pops up where you can add columns, data types, etc.In this designer we may also specify Column Names, Data Types, etc.Step 3: Save the table by clicking the Save button.3.3 SQL ConstraintsConstraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.Structured Query Language (SQL)
18CREATE TABLEConstraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) orafter the table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).Here are the most important constraints: PRIMARY KEYNOT NULLUNIQUEFOREIGN KEYCHECKDEFAULTIDENTITYIn the sections below we will explain some of these in detail.3.3.1PRIMARY KEYThe PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.Primary keys must contain unique values. It is normal to just use running numbers, like 1, 2,3, 4, 5, as values in Primary Key column. It is a good idea to let the system handle this foryou by specifying that the Primary Key should be set to identity(1,1). IDENTITY(1,1) meansthe first value will be 1 and then it will increment by 1.Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary key.If we take a closer look at the CUSTOMER table created earlier:CREATE TABLE [CUSTOMER](CustomerId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE,LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,)GOAs you see we use the “Primary Key” keyword to specify that a column should be thePrimary Key.Structured Query Language (SQL)
19CREATE TABLESetting Primary Keys in the Designer Tools:If you use the Designer tools in SQL Server, you can easily set the primary Key in a table justby right-click and select “Set primary Key”.The primary Key column will then have a small keya Primary Key.3.3.2in front to illustrate that this column isFOREIGN KEYA FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.Example:We will create a CREATE TABLE script for these tables:Structured Query Language (SQL)
20CREATE TABLESCHOOL:CREATE TABLE SCHOOL(SchoolId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,SchoolName varchar(50) NOT NULL UNIQUE,Description varchar(1000) NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,PostCode varchar(50) NULL,PostAddress varchar(50) NULL,)GOCLASS:CREATE TABLE CLASS(ClassId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,SchoolId int NOT NULL FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES SCHOOL (SchoolId),ClassName varchar(50) NOT NULL UNIQUE,Description varchar(1000) NULL,)GOThe FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links betweentables.The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents that invalid data from being inserted into theforeign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the table it points to.Setting Foreign Keys in the Designer Tools:If you want to use the designer, right-click on the column that you want to be the ForeignKey and select “Relationships ”:Structured Query Language (SQL)
21CREATE TABLEThe following window pops up (Foreign Key Relationships):Click on the “Add” button and then click on the small “ ” button. Then the following windowpops up (Tables and Columns):Structured Query Language (SQL)
22CREATE TABLEHere you specify the primary Key Column in the Primary Key table and the Foreign KeyColumn in the Foreign Key table.3.3.3NOT NULL / Required ColumnsThe NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that youcannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.If we take a closer look at the CUSTOMER table created earlier:CREATE TABLE [CUSTOMER](CustomerId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE,LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,)GOStructured Query Language (SQL)
23CREATE TABLEWe see that “CustomerNumber”, “LastName” and “FirstName” is set to “NOT NULL”, thismeans these columns needs to contain data. While “AreaCode”, “Address” and “Phone” maybe left empty, i.e, they don’t need to be filled out.Note! A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.Setting NULL/NOT NULL in the Designer Tools:In the Table Designer you can easily set which columns that should allow NULL or not:3.3.4UNIQUEThe UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table. The UNIQUE andPRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set ofcolumns.A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it.Note! You can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY KEYconstraint per table.If we take a closer look at the CUSTOMER table created earlier:CREATE TABLE [CUSTOMER](CustomerId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE,LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Structured Query Language (SQL)
24CREATE TABLEPhone varchar(50) NULL,)GOWe see that the “CustomerNumber” is set to UNIQUE, meaning each customer must have aunique Customer Number. Example:Setting UNIQUE in the Designer Tools:If you want to use the designer, right-click on the column that you want to be UNIQUE andselect “Indexes/Keys ”:Then click “Add” and then set the “Is Unique” property to “Yes”:Structured Query Language (SQL)
253.3.5CREATE TABLECHECKThe CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.If you define a CHECK constraint on a single column it allows only certain values for thiscolumn.If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain columns basedon values in other columns in the row.Example:CREATE TABLE [CUSTOMER](CustomerId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE CHECK(CustomerNumber 0),LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,)GOIn this case, when we try to insert a Customer Number less than zero we will get an errormessage.Setting CHECK constraints in the Designer Tools:If you want to use the designer, right-click on the column where you want to set theconstraints and select “Check Constraints ”:Structured Query Language (SQL)
26CREATE TABLEThen click “Add” and then click “ ” in order to open the Expression window:In the Expression window you can type in the expression you want to use:Structured Query Language (SQL)
273.3.6CREATE TABLEDEFAULTThe DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a default value into a column.The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.Example:CREATE TABLE [CUSTOMER](CustomerId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE,LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,Country varchar(20) DEFAULT 'Norway',AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,)GOSetting DEFAULT values in the Designer Tools:Select the column and go into the “Column Properties”:Structured Query Language (SQL)
283.3.7CREATE TABLEAUTO INCREMENT or IDENTITYVery often we would like the value of the primary key field to be created automatically everytime a new record is inserted.Example:CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER(CustomerId int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE,LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,)GOAs shown below, we use the IDENTITY() for this. IDENTITY(1,1) means the first value will be 1and then it will increment by 1.Setting identity(1,1) in the Designer Tools:We can use the designer tools to specify that a Primary Key should be an identity columnthat is automatically generated by the system when we insert data in to the table.Click on the column in the designer and go into the Column Properties window:Structured Query Language (SQL)
29CREATE TABLE3.4 ALTER TABLEThe ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:ALTER TABLE table nameADD column name datatypeTo delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systemsdon't allow deleting a column):ALTER TABLE table nameDROP COLUMN column nameTo change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:ALTER TABLE table nameALTER COLUMN column name datatypeIf we use CREATE TABLE and the table already exists in the table we will get an errormessage, so if we combine CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE we can create robust databasescripts that gives no errors, as the example shown below:if not exists (select * from dbo.sysobjects where id object id(N'[CUSTOMER]') andOBJECTPROPERTY(id, N'IsUserTable') 1)CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER(CustomerId int PRIMARY KEY,CustomerNumber int NOT NULL UNIQUE,LastName varchar(50) NOT NULL,FirstName varchar(50) NOT NULL,AreaCode int NULL,Address varchar(50) NULL,Phone varchar(50) NULL,)GOif exists(select * from dbo.syscolumns where id object id(N'[CUSTOMER]') andOBJECTPROPERTY(id, N'IsUserTable') 1 and name 'CustomerId')ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER ALTER COLUMN CustomerId intElseALTER TABLE CUSTOMER ADD CustomerId intGOif exists(select * from dbo.syscolumns where id object id(N'[CUSTOMER]') andOBJECTPROPERTY(id, N'IsUserTable') 1 and name 'CustomerNumber')ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER ALTER COLUMN CustomerNumber intStructured Query Language (SQL)
30CREATE TABLEElseALTER TABLE CUSTOMER ADD CustomerNumber intGO.Structured Query Language (SQL)
4 INSERT INTOThe INSERT INTO statement is used to insert a new row in a table.It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only theirvalues:INSERT INTO table nameVALUES (value1, value2, value3,.)Example:INSERT INTO CUSTOMER VALUES ('1000', 'Smith', 'John', 12,'California', '11111111')The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:INSERT INTO table name (column1, column2, column3,.)VALUES (value1, value2, value3,.)This form is recommended!Example:INSERT INTO CUSTOMER (CustomerNumber, LastName, FirstName, AreaCode,Address, Phone)VALUES ('1000', 'Smith', 'John', 12, 'California', '11111111')Insert Data Only in Specified Columns:It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.Example:INSERT INTO CUSTOMER (CustomerNumber, LastName, FirstName)VALUES ('1000', 'Smith', 'John')Note! You need at least to include all columns that cannot be NULL.We remember the table definition for the CUSTOMER table:31
32INSERT INTOi.e., we need to include at least “CustomerNumber”, “LastName” and “FirstName”.“CustomerId” is set to “identity(1,1)” and therefore values for this column are generated bythe system.Insert Data in the Designer Tools:When you have created the tables, you can easily insert data into them using the designertools. Right-click on the specific table and select “Edit Top 200 Rows”:Then you can enter data in a table format, similar to, e.g., MS Excel:Structured Query Language (SQL)
5 UPDATEThe UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.The syntax is as follows:UPDATE table nameSET column1 value, column2 value2,.WHERE some column some valueNote! Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies whichrecord or records that should be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will beupdated!Example:update CUSTOMER set AreaCode 46 where CustomerId 2Before update:After update:If you don’t include the WHERE clause the result becomes: So make sure to include the WHERE clause when using the UPDATE command!33
34UPDATEUpdate Data in the Designer Tools:The same way you insert data you can also update the data. Right-click on the specific tableand select “Edit Top 200 Rows”:Then you can change your data:Structured Query Language (SQL)
6 DELETEThe DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.Syntax:DELETE FROM table nameWHERE some column some valueNote! Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies whichrecord or records that should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will bedeleted!Example:delete from CUSTOMER where CustomerId 2Before delete:After delete:Delete All Rows:It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that thetable structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:DELETE FROM table nameNote! Make sure to do this only when
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a database computer language designed for managing . In this Tutorial, we will focus on Microsoft SQL Server. SQL Server uses T-SQL (Transact-SQL). . , Toad Data Modeler, PowerDesigner, Visio, etc. This is called Database Modeling. The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database. Syntax:
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