The Evolution Of Track And Field Rules During The Last Century

5Discus Throw in the 1906 “Intercalated” Olympic Games in Athens. Note there is no cage and all the officials andspectators close to the ring, including Greece’s Prince George and Prince Nicholas seated at left. They obviously werevery trusting in those days.Ties were handled quite a bit differently than today. In general, tie-breaking rules applied toany place, not just first, and performances in tie-breakers did not count toward the final best effortcredited to the athlete. In running events, tying competitors had to re-run the race, with the Refereedetermining the time and place of the re-run. In the throws and horizontal jumps, tying competitorsgot three more attempts and the best of those three additional attempts was given the higher place. Ifthey were still tied, the process was repeated as needed. In the High Jump, the tying competitors gotthree additional attempts at the last height; if no one cleared the height, the bar was moved down forthree more attempts, and they kept going down until one made it and one did not. If both jumpersmade a height within the three attempts, the tie went to the jumper who made it in the fewest attempts.In the Pole Vault, tie-breaking was different. The bar was raised or lowered at the official’s“discretion”, and each vaulter was given one attempt at the height.The rules for cross county note “slow chases” and “fast chases”. Cross country races evolvedfrom a British or European event called “Hare and Hounds” (which is probably why cross countryrunners always used to be called “harriers” in the newspapers). Apparently, how these chases were setup must have been pretty common knowledge a hundred years ago, but from our vantage point in the21st century, these written rules do not give much clue as to the mechanics of running one of theseevents. It seems it could be something similar to today’s Hash House Harrier runs, if you are familiarwith those events, and the “hares” laid a trail, or “scent”, on the run using bits of different coloredpaper.1913 IAAFFollowing a 1912 preliminary meeting in Stockholm to discuss the need for an internationalorganization to govern track and field, in 1913 there was a meeting in Berlin to finalize the formationof an organization to establish international rules and oversee the sport of track and field, or Athletics.This was the genesis of the IAAF. (At this time the name of the sport appeared not to be firmlyestablished. In written documents it is referred to as “field and track” as often as it is “track andfield”.) There were 34 countries that were original members of the IAAF (today there are 212). The

6only world championships were the Olympic Games every four years. The IAAF did not hold separateworld championships until 1983, and now hold them in odd-numbered years. It was stipulated that noone younger than 17 could compete in the Olympic Games.The Olympic Games events were essentially the same as today, with the addition of thePentathlon, the 56 lb. Weight Throw, the 3Km Team Race (five on a team, three to score), the Tug ofWar (eight men on a team), a 10Km cross country race, and the Modern Pentathlon (which laterbecame its own distinct event with its own governing body). There also were a number of differencesin terminology. The Long Jump was called the Broad Jump, and the Triple Jump was called the HopStep and Jump. The High Jump and Broad Jump were called the Running High Jump and RunningBroad Jump to distinguish them from the Standing High Jump and Standing Broad Jump, which alsowere standard events. The Pole Vault was called the Pole Jump. Each of the throwing events weredivided into two categories: the “best hand” events, which were done as we know them today, and the“both hand” events, where the athlete was given three attempts with each hand and the best throw witheach hand was combined for a total distance.In the 1913 Berlin meeting, one of the three US representatives, James E.Sullivan of the AAU, was appointed president of the Rules Committee. At theconclusion of the Berlin meeting, Sullivan’s committee proposed a set of rules to beconsidered at the next meeting the following year. This set of rules was 17 pages inlength, and not surprisingly bore a resemblance to the AAU rules. But there weresome differences.The Judges, in conjunction with the Referee, could decide when a race shouldbe re-run because of a foul. Umpires were called Umpires in the 1913 version of the James E. Sullivanrules, but Inspectors in the 1914 version. False starts had the same penalties as the 1907 AAU rules(converted to metric distances), but now there was a specific set of starter’s commands: “Gentlemen,to your course”, “Get set” and the gun. Races up to and including the 400M had to have staked androped lanes. In races not run in lanes, you could not cut in until you were at least two meters in frontof the runner being passed. No competitor was considered to have finished until the entire body wasacross the finish line. Placing was now decided by the “torso”, but the runner still had to completelycross the line.In both the 110H and the 400H, no record was allowed if any hurdle was knocked down. Ifthree or more hurdles were knocked down by a runner, he was disqualified. In relays, after the firstround no change was allowed in the composition or the order of the teams. In the 3Km Steeplechase,each lap had five barriers, as today. But the 1913 rules called for a water jump, three hurdles (“notmore than 3 feet high”) and a “solid stone” wall three feet high and 30 cm thick. (Fortunately forhurdle crews everywhere, this stone wall was not mentioned in the 1914 version of the rules, nor in anyrule book thereafter.)In throws from a circle, the competitor had to stay in the circle until the throw was marked.There was no mention of leaving from the back half of the circle yet. The Shot Put was called “Puttingthe Weight”. In the Olympic Games, six were taken to the finals in all events. The throwing circlewas 7 feet in diameter and made of metal, wood or rope. The 1913 rules were ambiguous abouttouching the circle during an attempt; in most places it said you cannot, but the Hammer Throw rulesaid you can. Attempts were measured from the outside of the circle. The 90 degree sector wasmentioned for the first time. The discus circle was “about” 2.5M (8.2 ft.) in diameter. Form forPutting the Weight (Shot Put) was “from the shoulder, never from behind the shoulder” (no mention ofbelow the shoulder). The Javelin Throw was from “behind a scratch line properly marked”. Norunway or sector was mentioned. Later rules defined the scratch line as a board 12 feet long and 3”(7cm) wide, sunk in the ground. That 7cm width of the board survives today, and is why the modernjavelin arc is 7cm, while nearly every other line width in our sport is 5cm. Each attempt in the javelin

7was measured from the landing point on a line perpendicular to the scratch line or the scratch lineextended, similar to the way the Long Jump is measured.Shot Put (“Putting the Weight”) at the 1908 Olympic Games inLondon. Note the grass surface and what appears to be a rope circle.The High Jump and Pole Vault used wooden cross bars only. No length was specified, otherthan they could not extend more than 6” beyond the pegs. The High Jump started at 1.60M (5’ 3”). Ajumper could pass heights until he entered, but then had to jump every height thereafter. Leaving theground (“springing”) counted as an attempt. Passing under the bar was a “balk” and three successivebalks was a failed attempt. Ties were to be decided by “re-jumping”, but there was no definition ofthis. Diving or somersaulting was not allowed. The High Jump uprights could not be moved morethan 2 feet in any direction.The Pole Jump started at 3M, and passing was the same as in the High Jump. Leaving theground counted as an attempt. As in the High Jump, the uprights could be moved no more than 2 feetin any direction.In the throws and horizontal jumps, all got three attempts, and the best four got three more.The Pentathlon consisted of the Running Broad Jump, Javelin Throw, 200M, Discus Throw,and 1500M, all in one day. Scoring was 1 point for first place, 2 points for second, etc., and the lowscore won. After the 200M, scores were totaled and the top 12 plus ties went on to the Discus Throw,then the top six after the discus went on to the 1500M.The Marathon required a doctor’s physical exam before the start. Taking any drugs before orduring the race resulted in disqualification. Taking any assistance or refreshments during the race alsoresulted in disqualification. One of the later rule books specifically mentioned the use of automobilesor horses under disallowed types of assistance.In the 1913 meeting the German delegation proposed eliminating the Race Walk, but thisproposal was not voted on. There was still no definition of legal walking, but the rules now said thereshould be two or more Race Walk Judges and their assistants. They had the power to disqualify on thethird caution, or for a caution in the last 200M of the race.

81912 Race Walk1912 Olympic Shot PutAt the 1913 meeting there was a report presented by a Special Committee on Amateur Statutethat laid out the international policy on amateurism. Remember, at this time amateurism vsprofessionalism was a major issue. In the 1913 meeting there was a proposal that the IAAF alsoextend its governance to cover professional competition, the rationale being “the only way to preventthe growth of professionalism being to control it.” After major opposition from all quarters, thisproposal was withdrawn. The rules governing amateurism adopted by the new IAAF in 1913 had astheir first principle “An amateur is one who competes for the love of the sport.” The second principlewas “Competing for money or any other pecuniary reward in any sport makes the competitor aprofessional in all sports.” And third, “In track and field athletic sports one who knowingly competeswith, or against, a professional, thereby becomes a professional.” This is the infamous “contaminationrule”. The IAAF also declared that anyone who taught, trained or coached any sport for money was aprofessional, although they did allow each country to decide on this issue for domestic competition.Among other parts of the amateur regulations was the requirement that “an amateur may notsell, pawn or give away” any prizes earned, and “shall hold the same subject at all times to theinspection of the member of the Federation of his country.” Also, there was a stipulation that anyexpense money paid for an athlete’s travel, housing or meals must be paid not to the athlete but to amember of the Federation of the athlete’s country. Sixty years later this was one of the rules that StevePrefontaine and others were fighting with the AAU about, and that eventually helped lead to the 1979federal act stripping the AAU of its control of sports in this country, and led directly to the formationof The Athletics Congress, now the USATF. But over a century ago sports like track and field wereseen as a gentlemanly pursuit of the more privileged class that must not be sullied by the pursuit ofmoney, and those who set themselves up in control did everything they could to see that it remainedthat way.1914 IAAFAt the second meeting of the IAAF in Lyon, France, in 1914, a second, more refined version ofthe rule book was approved. It was 24 pages, with 11 pages of implement descriptions. It noted thatthe Olympic Games (and thus the world championships) were competitions for men only.The Referee now had primary decision power regarding disqualifications, no longer sharing itwith any Judges (except the Starter, of course). It was now stated that protests required a deposit ofone British pound or its equivalent. Most other modifications involved the field events.The rules for the Running Broad Jump called for soft dirt or sand to be laid down for fourinches beyond the scratch line and to a level slightly above the board, for the purpose of showing theimprint of a foot foul. This is the predecessor of today’s plasticine.

9The High Jump and Pole Vault uprights were to be set no less than 12 feet apart. There stillwas no specified length of the crossbar, other than it must extend no more than six inches beyond thepegs. The three inch pegs were now specified as round and one-half inch in diameter. The crossbarwas square in cross section and one inch thick. Now the High Jump uprights cannot be moved. And inthe Pole Vault, it was changed to three consecutive run-ups without an attempt is a failed attempt,instead of two.For the throws, it was now specified that measurements are made from the inside edge of thecircle, and measurements must be made with a steel tape. The competitor now may touch the inside ofthe circle. However, “It shall be a foul throw if the competitor touches with any part of his body orclothing the ground outside the circle.” (Emphasis mine.) We have all heard about overzealousofficials who call a foul if a shoelace or pant leg touches the ring or stopboard. Maybe this is theorigin of that problem, with this obsolete rule somehow passed down from generation to generation ofofficials by word of mouth.The twelve feet long, three inch wide board sunk in the ground as the scratch line in the JavelinThrow was now specified, but there was no mention of a sector. After the javelin landed thecompetitor could cross the scratch board. The rules for the Hammer Throw made the first mention ofrecommending the use of a cage. While the Discus Throw and the Hammer Throw rules were the onlyones to mention the use of a 90 degree sector, the implement specification section said all throws froma circle will be into a 90 degree sector.1912 Javelin ThrowAt the 1914 meeting, the Australian delegation proposed adoption of their definition of legalrace walking (although this definition did not appear in the rules section). The Australians used threerules to define legal race walking; the first two were similar to what we use today: continuous contactand a straight knee on contact. The third rule called for an upright stance during walking.Jim Thorpe throwing discus in 1912 Olympic decathlonNote lack of cage1912 Hammer ThrowNote 2M wire fence as cage at right of picture

101921 IAAFThe third meeting of the IAAF took place in Geneva in 1921. The years since the secondmeeting had been interrupted by WWI, and were “eliminated from the history of the Federation.” As aresult of the aftermath of the war, the German delegation did not take part in the 1921 meeting, andGerman was dropped as an official language of the IAAF, leaving only English and French, as itremains today. The IOC requested the elimination of Race Walking and the Tug of War from theschedule of track and field events. The IAAF eliminated the Tug of War, the 56 lb. Weight Throw andthe 3Km Race Walk, retaining the 10Km Race Walk. The Marathon distance was now specified as 26miles 385 yards; before this time it had usually been about 25 miles. Refreshments now were notallowed in races of less than 10 miles, implying they were allowed in longer races. “Electric timing”was now allowed, but only as a supplement to hand timing, and not for record purposes.The Starter’s commands were now “On your marks”, “Ready” and then the gun after a pause ofat least 2 seconds. There finally was a definition of legal race walking, but it consisted only of thecontinuous contact rule. And now it only took two cautions from the Judge for disqualification, or onein the last 400M of the race, rather than three cautions or one in the last 200M as previously. For the3Km Steeplechase there was the first definition of the depth of the water jump: 2.5 feet or 76cm,compared to the more recent 70cm (which is now lessened to 50cm for newly constructed pits).1924 Olympic Cross Country Race1928 Olympic 3Km SteeplechaseThe crossbars for the vertical jumps were now triangular, 1 3/16 inches on a side. The RunningHigh Jump now had a new form requirement, beyond no diving or somersaulting. “A fair jump is onewhere the head of the contestant does not go over the bar before the feet and is not below the buttocksin clearing the bar.” None of today’s jumpers using the Fosbury Flop would meet this requirement. Itis a good thing for them this rule was gone by 1935. There was a new “balk line” one meter in front ofthe cross bar. Stepping over the line without making an attempt was a “balk”, and two balks insuccession equaled a failed attempt. Individual marks for the take-off were allowed, as was ahandkerchief on the bar “for sighting purposes”.The Pole Vault now used a “balk line” five meters in front of the bar, and two successive balksresulted in being charged with a failed attempt. For the first time a “wooden box or stopboard” sunk inthe ground is mentioned as allowable, as well as the one foot diameter hole dug in the ground. Therealso was the first mention that it is a failed attempt if the pole knocks the bar down.

11High Jump form in 19241924 Broad JumpIn the Running Broad Jump, the “balk line” was also used, at two meters in front of the scratchline, and two balks equaled a failed attempt. They were finally starting to get some consistency acrossthe events with regard to balks. For all throws and the horizontal jumps, they now took the top six to afinal three attempts after the first three rounds. In the Shot Put rules there was the first mention of notallowing a leather hand harness or any other support device.Ties for all places were still broken, but in the vertical jumps the tying jumpers now took oneadditional attempt at the tied height (instead of three), “and if no result, the bar shall be lowered to theprevious height cleared and one more trial allowed. The bar shall then be raised or lowered until thetie is decided.” For the throws and horizontal jumps, one additional attempt was given. Anyperformances accomplished during tie-breaking were not counted toward the best result credited. Inrunning events, ties were still settled by a run-off.The 1921 IAAF rule book also contained the first set of scoring tables for the combined events,based on the 1912 Olympic records as 1,000 points.1922 NCAAAt this point let’s come back to the USA, where in 1922 the National Collegiate AthleticAssociation (NCAA) published its first track and field rule book. The rules covered 16 pages, and inmost respects were similar to the IAAF rules. Under the new NCAA rules, the Referee’s decisionswere final; there was no provision for a Jury of Appeals.The false start rule was the same, with a false start defined a touching the ground in front of thestarting line before the gun is fired, and the penalty for the first two false starts was being moved back,and disqualification on the third. In the 1932 NCAA rule book there was a clarification that if therewas a false start but the Starter fired the gun, the Starter recalled the race but could not impose apenalty. The false start could be penalized if the Starter had not fired the gun. This rule was still ineffect in 1934 when the NCAA changed the false start rule to a simple disqualification after a secondfalse start, dropping the idea of moving the runners back. In 1934 the Starter’s commands were “Geton your marks”, “Get set” and the gun after a minimum two second hold (the book actually suggeststhe starter mentally count “1,001; 1,002; 1,003”). If the runners were not steady within four seconds,the runners were to be called up. For a “rolling start”, where the runner was in motion before the gun,but had not yet touched the ground in front of the starting line, the Starter was to recall the race butcould not impose a penalty. The NCAA adopted the current No False Start rule in 1975, and the highsch

plant box. Vaulting poles at this time usually had a spike at the end, as illustrated below. It appears this set of standards could be use for both high jumping and pole vaulting. Pole vaulting in 1920. Note the judges on ladders . Vaulting standards and pole available in 1907 . All throwing