HOW BAKING WORKS

x)PREFACEThe actual temperature at which yeast cells die depends on these and otherfactors, and that temperature is not necessarily 140 F (60 C). For this reason, manytemperatures provided in this text are converted from Fahrenheit to Celsius inranges of five degrees. While this may appear inexact, it best reflects the reality ofthe situation.Other times, however, temperatures are meant to be precise. For example, it matters when proofing yeast dough whether the temperature is 81 F (27 C) or 85 F (29 C).In this case, temperatures are converted from Fahrenheit to Celsius to the nearestwhole degree.Likewise, weight and volume conversions are not necessarily given to the precisegram or milliliter. In most cases, U.S./imperial units are provided in increments of.25 ounce, while metric units are converted in increments of 5 grams or 5 milliliters.This reflects the reality of the bakeshop, where most equipment reads down to theseincrements.CHANGES TO THE SECOND EDITIONWhile the core format and theme of the text remains the same, several important changes have been made to the Second Edition of How Baking Works. Materialwas added to reflect the increasing use of newer ingredients. In particular, stevia, agavesyrup, and other sweeteners were added. Along with this, information was added onthe source and processing of sweeteners, to increase the depth of understanding ofhow they differ as well as how they are similar to each other. This is reflected in anexpansion of Chapter 8.At the same time that newer ingredients have been developed, there has beenan increased interest in more traditional ingredients, such as stone-ground flours andancient grains. Chapters 5 and 6 have added information to reflect these interests.The text also reflects new changes to federal law and growing consumer awareness ofnutrition and health. This includes information on the labeling of food allergens in theUnited States, more information on dietary fiber, and additional and updated information on trans fats and trans-free fats in Chapter 10.An amazing amount of research has been completed in the past few years ongluten structure, in particular, but also on other flour components and their interactions. This comes at a time when scientists are selectively breeding new varieties ofwheat with specific properties to meet the changing needs of farmers, processors, andconsumers across the globe. Based on this new knowledge, updated information ongluten structure and its interactions is provided in Chapter 7.Various enzymes and reducing agents have always been important to large-scalecommercial bakers, who typically add them as dough conditioners or improvers.However, they are also naturally present in flours and in other common ingredientsused in bread baking. Since their special properties are exploited by artisan bakers asthey adjust fermentation and mixing conditions, it seemed important to discuss themin more detail. Chapters 5 and 7 include increased coverage of enzymes and reducingagents. Finally, Chapter 9 reflects an improved discussion of starch structure and amore accurate representation of the process of starch gelatinization.Questions at the end of each chapter have been divided into Questions for Reviewand Questions for Discussion. Questions for Review are straightforward; they reflect thematerial as it is presented in the text. Questions for Discussion are questions that ingeneral require a higher level of thinking, that require integration of information fromseveral areas of the chapter, or that apply information in a slightly different mannerthan is presented in the text.The main change to the Second Edition is the development of exercises andexperiments at the end of each chapter. These exercises and experiments are designedfpref.indd x7/20/07 2:47:21 PM

PREFACE)xito reinforce material from the text in a way that shows rather than tells. Some ofthe exercises are exclusively paper exercises, with a few involving math. Many moreinvolve the sensory evaluation of ingredients. There are several reasons for includingthese sensory exercises in the text. First is the narrow objective of learning to identifycharacterizing traits of ingredients, to better understand the effects that they will haveon finished products. Second is the even narrower but very practical objective of learning to identify ingredients that may be unlabeled or accidentally mislabeled. Third isthe broad objective of increasing awareness of all the tastes, textures, and sights in thebakeshop, no matter how small or mundane. There is much to be learned in a bakeshop, even when the same items are prepped and baked day after day. The first step tolearning is learning to be aware.An Instructor’s Manual (ISBN 978-0470-04512-1) accompanies this book. It canbe obtained by contacting your Wiley sales representative. An electronic version of theInstructor’s Manual is available to qualified instructors on the companion Web site, atwww.wiley.com/college/figoni.ABOUT THE EXPERIMENTSWhile the exercises at the end of each chapter are self-explanatory, the experiments do need some explanation. The experiments allow students to further developbasic bakeshop skills, but that is not the main objective of the experiments. Instead,the emphasis of the experiments is on comparing and evaluating products that vary insome systematic way. The real “products” of these experiments are students’ findings,which they summarize in the Results Tables provided at the end of each experiment.There are also specific questions at the end of each experiment, with space provided forstudents to summarize their conclusions.The experiments are designed so that one or more can be conducted within afour-hour session by a class divided into five or more groups. Each group in the classroom completes one or more of the products in the experiment. When all productsare made and cooled, students evaluate the products, either as a class or individually.Room-temperature water (bottled water, if tap water has a strong taste) should beprovided, to cleanse the palate between tastings, and students should constantly returnto the control product to make side-by-side comparisons of it with each test product.Whenever possible, two separate groups should prepare the control product for eachexperiment, in case one turns out unacceptable.The key to well-conducted experiments is for the products to be prepared andbaked under carefully-controlled conditions. This is emphasized by the detail providedin the formulas within each experiment. However, understand that the specific mixingand bake times could change, to adjust to the different equipment and conditionsin your classroom bakeshop. What is more important than following the providedmethods of preparation exactly as written is that each product made within an experiment by a class be completed exactly as all the others.Above all else, however, common sense rules when completing experiments. Thereare times when rigid rules must be forsaken, and chefs and scientists must know whento “work with their ingredients.” What this means is that if it is necessary to makeadjustments to products because of the nature of the ingredient, those adjustmentsshould be made. An example of when adjustments must be made to products is inthe experiment on preparing rolls with different flours, included in different forms inChapters 5 and 6. If the same amount of water were used for each type of flour, thegluten in the flour would not be properly hydrated. These adjustments are not madelightly, however, and they must be recorded in a Results Table. Notice that a Commentscolumn is included in each table, for this very purpose.While any classroom bakeshop can be used, there are certain modifications thatmight need to be made to efficiently run the experiments. For instance, the bakeshopfpref.indd xi7/20/07 2:47:21 PM

xii)PREFACEshould be supplied with multiple versions of smaller-scale equipment and smallwares.As an example, multiple five-quart mixers, one per group, are needed in place of onelarge mixer. A list of equipment and smallwares for outfitting a bakeshop for theseexperiments follows.EQUIPMENT AND SMALLWARES1. Baker’s or electronic scales2. Measuring cups and , assorted sizesSieves or strainersMixers with 5-quart bowls, threespeed Hobart N50, ten-speedCommercial Kitchenaid, orequivalentFlat beaters, dough hooks, and wirewhips for mixersBowl scrapersBench scrapersDough cutters, 2" or 2½" orequivalentOven thermometersParchment paperOvens (conventional, reel, deck, etc.)Stovetop burnersHalf sheet pansMuffin tins and liners (2½ or3½" size)Half hotel pansSilicone (Silpat) pads, to fit halfsheet pans17. Portion scoops, including .34.35.(2¾ oz.) and #30TimersRulersProof boxStainless steel bowls, especially2- and 4-quart sizesMixing spoons, wooden andstainlessSpatulas, heat-resistant siliconeStainless steel saucepans, heavy1½ quartRolling pinsKnives, assorted serrated,paring, etc.Plastic wrapPastry bagsPastry tubes, plainVegetable peelersCake pans, 9-inch roundCutting boardsPlastic teaspoons for tastingCups for waterTape and markers for labelingACKNOWLEDGMENTSI would like to thank the administration of the College of Culinary Arts atJohnson & Wales University (J&W), who first suggested that I write this text. Withouttheir prodding and support, I would not have known that I could really do it.The faculty in the International Baking and Pastry Institute at J&W deserve aspecial thanks. They let me into their bakeshops, answered my questions, presentedme with practical problems, and made me feel like I was one of them. They demonstrated firsthand to the students through their own knowledge and understanding ofscience that science does indeed belong in the bakeshop. They have made my years atJ&W immensely rewarding, challenging, and fun, and that has made all the differenceto me.In particular, I would like to thank my friend Chef Martha Crawford, whosepresence is felt in the classrooms and halls at J&W, even as she has moved on. ChefCrawford taught me many things, including how to begin to think like a pastry chef.She has a knack for getting to the core of any problem and laying out a path to its solution. Whenever I strayed, she firmly and wisely placed me back on track. For this, andfor much more, I am grateful.fpref.indd xii7/20/07 2:47:22 PM

PREFACE)xiiiI would also like to pay a debt of gratitude to Chef Joseph Amendola, who pioneered the education of bakers and pastry chefs in this country. Chef Amendola hadthe vision to see where education should head, and he placed us on that path.I would like to thank the reviewers of the manuscript. Their helpful comments andsuggestions strengthened the manuscript. They are Dr. Bill Atwell of Cargill, Inc.; GloriaM. Cabral of Bristol Community College; Kelli Dever of Boise State University; KathrynGordon of The Art Institute of New York City; Catherine M. Hallman of Walker StateCommunity College; Monica J. Lanczak of Pennsylvania College of Technology; SimonStevenson of Connecticut Culinary Institute; and Scott Weiss of Carteret CommunityCollege.Finally, I would like to thank my family. My mother, who taught me how to bake,my father, who taught me to love food, and both my parents, as well as my sisters,who years ago encouraged me to continue even as they ate my first experiments inbaking. They helped shape me, and in doing so, they helped to shape this book. Bobdeserves a special thanks, because he was on the front line, tolerating my late nights atthe computer and steadying my mood as it changed with each day. This book is yoursas well as mine.Paula FigoniProvidence, Rhode Islandfpref.indd xiii7/20/07 2:47:26 PM

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CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONTO BAKINGCHAPTER OBJECTIVES1. Discuss the importance of accuracy in the bakeshop and how it is achieved.2. Differentiate between volumetric and weight measurements and specify wheneach should be used.3. Differentiate between metric and U.S. common units.4. Introduce the concept of baker’s percentages.5. Discuss the importance of controlling ingredient temperatures.INTRODUCTIONThose who enter the fields of baking and pastry arts do so for a variety of reasons. For some, it is the joy of working with their hands, of creating edible works of artfrom a few basic ingredients. For others, it is the rush they get from the fast pace ofthe bakeshop, or from its satisfying sights and smells. Still others like the challenge ofpleasing and surprising customers. No matter the reason, the decision to work in thefield is usually grounded in a love of food, and maybe past experience in a bakeshop ora home kitchen.Working in a professional bakeshop is different from baking at home, however.Production in a bakeshop is on a larger scale. It takes place day in and day out, sometimes under severe time pressures, in uncomfortably hot and humid conditions, andover long hours. Despite the discomforts and pressures, product quality must remainconsistently high, because that is what the customer expects.It takes specialized knowledge and practiced skills to accomplish these goals successfully. It helps to be attentive to the sights, sounds, and smells of the bakeshop.Experienced bakers and pastry chefs, for example, listen to the sound of cake batterbeing beaten in a bowl, knowing that changes in sound accompany changes to the batter itself. They push and pummel bread dough to feel how it responds. They use smellsfrom the oven to judge when baking is nearly complete, and they sample their finishedproducts before presenting them to the customer.c01.indd 17/20/07 2:21:13 PM

2)CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION TO BAKINGExperienced bakers and pastry chefs rely, too, on tools like timers and thermometers, because they know how time and temperature affect product quality. They alsorely heavily on accurate scales.THE IMPORTANCE OFACCURACY IN THE BAKESHOPMost bakery items are made of the same ingredients: flour, water, sugar, eggs,leavening agents, and fat. Sometimes the difference between two products is simply themethod of preparation used in assembling the ingredients. Other times the difference isthe proportion or amount of each ingredient in a formula. Because small differences inmethod and in proportion of ingredients can have a large effect on the quality of bakedgoods, it is crucial that bakers and pastry chefs follow methods of preparation carefullyand measure ingredients properly. Otherwise, a product may turn out unexpectedly, orworse, it may turn out unacceptable or inedible.For example, if too much shortening and too few eggs are added to a formula formoist, chewy oatmeal cookies, the cookies will likely turn out crisp and dry. If the sameerror is made with cake batter, the result will likely be a complete failure, since eggsprovide structure and volume. In fact, bakers and pastry chefs require a higher degreeof accuracy when measuring ingredients than do culinary chefs in the kitchen.When the kitchen chef prepares a pot of soup, it doesn’t really matter if a little lesscelery is added or an extra onion is included. The chef still has a pot of soup, and if theflavor is off, adjustments can be made along the way. Bakers and pastry chefs cannotmake adjustments along the way. If too little salt is added to bread dough, it will dono good to sprinkle salt onto the bread once it is baked. Instead, ingredients must beweighed and measured accurately at the beginning.This means that, more so than kitchen chefs, bakers and pastry chefs are chemistsin the kitchen. As with chemists, creativity and skill are important for success, but so isaccuracy. If a formula calls for two pounds of flour, it doesn’t mean around two pounds,more or less. It means two pounds.BALANCES AND SCALESFormulas used in the bakeshop are in some ways like recipes in the kitchen.Formulas include a list of ingredients and a method of preparation (MOP). Unlikerecipes used by the kitchen chef, however, formulasinclude exact measurements for each ingredient, andH E L P F U L HINTthese measurements are usually given in weights. Theprocess of weighing ingredients is called scaling becauseBaker’s scales and their accessories (scoops andpastry chefs use scales to weigh ingredients.weights) must be cared for if they are to remainThe standard scale used in the bakeshop is a baker’sin balance. They should be wiped regularly with abalancescale. It measures ingredients by balancing themdamp cloth and mild detergent, and they should notagainstknownweights. It is an investment that shouldbe banged or dropped. These precautions are necesbeselectedforits durability and its precision. A goodsary to keep the scale reading accurately.baker’sscalecanweigh amounts as large as 8 poundsTo determine if a scale is in balance, empty both(4kilograms)ormoreand as small as 1/4 ounces (0.25platforms and move the ounce weight indicator toounceor5grams).Thisprovides the precision needed forthe far left (i.e., to zero). With the scale at eye level,mostquantityfoodpreparation.determine whether the platforms are at the sameBakers and pastry chefs sometimes use digital elecheight. If they are not, adjust the weights locatedtronicscales. While many affordable electronic scalesbeneath the platforms as needed. Repeat this testprovidethe same or better precision than baker’s scales,with a scoop on the left platform and a counteritisnotnecessarily the case. The precision of a scale—weight on the right. If balancing is needed, do so byeitherbaker’sscale or electronic scale—depends entirelyadding or removing weight from the counterweight.on the scale’s design and construction.c01.indd 27/20/07 2:21:15 PM

UNITS OF MEASURE)3MORE ON SCALE READABILITYThe readability of a scale, sometimes represented as dfor scale division, is literally the increments in weightthat are read off the scale’s display panel. As weightis added onto a scale with a readability of 5 grams, forexample, the reading on the display panel will changefrom 0 grams, to 5 grams, to 10, 15, 20, and so on. Nomatter the weight of the ingredient, the scale displaysthe weight in increments of 5 grams. If a sample infact weighs 6 grams, the display will read 5 grams. If itweighs 8.75 grams, the display will read 10 grams.Sometimes a scale fluctuates between readings.Let’s say, for example, that the scale in the previousexample keeps fluctuating between 5 grams and10 grams. It is likely that the sample actually weighsabout 7.5 grams, which is halfway between 5 gramsand 10 grams.Most digital electronic scales provide information about precision—also calledreadability—and capacity on their front or back panels. For example, a scale that ismarked 4.0 kg 5 g has a capacity of 4 kilograms, meaning it can measure quantitiesas large as 4 kilograms (about 8.8 pounds). The readability of this scale is 5 grams. Fivegrams is equivalent to just under 0.2 ounce, which is similar to the 0.25-ounce precisionof a good baker’s scale.Consider another electronic scale, one marked 100 oz. 0.1 oz. This scale has acapacity of 100 ounces (6.25 pounds or 2.84 kilograms) and a readability of 0.1 ounce(3 grams). The smaller value for readability indicates that this scale provides betterprecision than a typical baker’s scale, making it useful forweighing small quantities of spices or flavorings.Just as bak

Baking and pastry programs in colleges and universities are laying the foundation to meet these new challenges. Part of this foundation includes applying the knowledge of science to the bakeshop. The purpose of . How Baking Works, Second Edition. is to help lay this foundation. Ye