AP Biology Unit 7 Student Notes

B.Located in the SAME location.C.At the SAME time.D. And showing signs of reproduction. (Offspring are present within the group.)Hardy-Weinberg EquilibriumHardy Weinberg /Genetic Equilibrium—a theoretical condition in which apopulation's genotype and allele frequencies will remain unchanged oversuccessive generations. Essentially, evolution is not occurring.In order for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to be achieved, the five requirements listedbelow must apply to the population.Requirements for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium1. No mutations. Germ cell mutations bring about evolution. Somatic cellmutations are not passed on to offspring.2. No immigration or emigration. (No gene flow)3. There must be a very large population in order to avoid genetic drift.Genetic Drift—unpredicted changes in allele frequencies due to chance. Usuallyoccurs in small, isolated populations.4. There must be no natural selection.5. There must be no sexual selection. Mating must be random.Hardy Weinberg EquationsThe Hardy-Weinberg equation is a mathematical equation that can be used to calculate thegenetic variation of a population at equilibrium. In 1908, G. H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinbergindependently described a basic principle of population genetics, which is now named theHardy-Weinberg equation. The equation is an expression of the principle known as HardyWeinberg equilibrium, which states that the amount of genetic variation in a population willremain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing factors.To explore the Hardy-Weinberg equation, we can examine a simple genetic locus (location) atwhich there are two alleles, A and a. The Hardy-Weinberg equation is expressed as:p2 2pq q2 1 (genotype frequency equation)where p is the frequency of the "A" dominant allele and q is the frequency of the "a" recessiveallele in the population. In the equation, p2 represents the frequency of the homozygousdominant genotype AA, q2 represents the frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype aa,

and 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype Aa. In addition, the sum of theallele frequencies for all the alleles at the locus must be 1, so p q 1 (allele frequencyequation). If the p and q allele frequencies are known, then the frequencies of the threegenotypes may be calculated using the Hardy-Weinberg equation. In population geneticsstudies, the Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to measure whether the observed genotypefrequencies in a population differ from the frequencies predicted by the equation.The Hardy Weinberg equations can only be used if the studied population is in geneticequilibrium. Do not attempt to use the equations to calculate allele frequencies for populationsthat are evolving.Genetic DriftGenetic Drift-- Random fluctuations in the frequency of the appearance of a gene in asmall isolated population, presumably owing to chance rather than natural selection.Types of Genetic DriftThe Founder Effect—A founder effect occurs when a new colony is started by a fewmembers of the original population. This small population size means that the colonymay have:reduced genetic variation from the original population.a non-random sample of the genes in the original population.

For example, the Afrikaner population of Dutch settlers in South Africa is descendedmainly from a few colonists. Today, the Afrikaner population has an unusually highfrequency of the gene that causes Huntington's disease, because those original Dutchcolonists just happened to carry that gene with anunusually high frequency.Bottleneck Effect—genetic drift resulting from the reduction of a population due to anatural disaster/human activity. The new population is not representative of theoriginal population. Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probablybecause of a population bottleneck humans inflicted on them in the 1890s. Huntingreduced their population size to as few as 20 individuals at theend of the 19thcentury. Their population has since rebounded to over 30,000 — but their genes stillcarry the marks of this bottleneck: they have much less genetic variation than apopulation of southern elephant seals that was not so intensely hunted.SpeciationBiological Species Concept—A species consists of genetically similar organisms thatcan interbreed and produce fertile offspring.For speciation to occur, two populations must become reproductively isolated fromeach other.–Over time, random mutations accumulate and are selected for or against.–Given enough time, this process can cause the separated populations todiverge into different species.Types of SpeciationAllopatric Speciation—Two populations are separated by a geographicalbarrier. Thisreproductively isolates the two groups from each other and leads to speciation.Sympatric Speciation—Two populations live in the same geographic area, but are stillreproductively isolated. This is most common in plants and is usually due to polyploidyand/or hybridization

Parapatric Speciation—Occurs when populations are separated not by a geographicalbarrier, such as a body of water, but by an extreme change in habitat. While populationsin these areas may interbreed, they often develop distinct characteristics and lifestyleswhich inhibit interbreeding.Example: Plants which live around mines (in soils contaminated with heavy metals) haveexperienced natural selection for genotypes that are tolerant of heavy metals.Meanwhile, neighboring plants that don't live in polluted soil have not undergoneselection for this trait. The two types of plants are close enough that tolerant and nontolerant individuals could potentially fertilize each other — so they seem to meet the firstrequirement of parapatric speciation, that of a continuous population. However, the twotypes of plants have evolved different flowering times. This change could be the firststep in cutting off gene flow entirely between the two groups. The groups are temporallyisolated.Adaptive RadiationAdaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestralspecies into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environmentmakes new resources available, creates new challenges, or opens new environmentalniches. Starting with a recent single ancestor, this process results in the speciation andphenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different morphological andphysiological traits.Adaptive radiation may occur due to a combination of allopatric, parapatric, and/orsympatric speciation events.

Adaptive Radiation Examples

20Reproductive Isolating MechanismsReproductive isolating mechanisms are a collection of evolutionary mechanisms such asbehaviors and physiological processes which are critical for speciation. They preventmembers of different species fromproducing offspring, or ensure that any hybrid offspring are sterile. These barriersmaintain the integrity of a species by reducing gene flow between related species.They are generally categorized as either pre-zygotic or post-zygotic.Pre-zygotic Isolating MechanismsPre-zygotic isolating mechanisms prevent related species from forming zygotes witheach other.A. Habitat isolation - The organisms live in two different environments.B. Behavioral Isolation – The “Mating Dances”/Mating behaviors are not recognized by theother.C. Temporal (time) Isolation – They have different times of year they canreproduce.D. Mechanical Isolation – The reproductive parts just don’t fit together correctly.E. Gametic Isolation – The sperm and egg do not recognize each other.

Post-zygotic Isolating MechanismsPost-zygotic isolating mechanisms--mechanisms which act after fertilization to preventsuccessful inter-population/species production of viable offspring.A. Reduced Hybrid Viability – The hybrid organism can’t survive for long duringdevelopment.B. Reduced Hybrid Fertility – The hybrid organism survives, it just can’t reproduce.Evidence for EvolutionPhylogeny or Phylogenetics—The evolutionary history of a species.Homologous features/homologies—structures in different species that are similarbecause of common ancestry (arm of a human, wing of bat, flipper of a whale). Thesestructures have the SAME STRUCTURE because the DNA “blueprint” is the same.Shared DNA/RNA/Protein Structure is the ultimate homology. The similarity of DNAsequences is the most compelling evidence that scientists have to prove theevolutionary relationships between organisms.Analogous features—Similarity in two species due to convergent evolution ratherthan to descent from a common ancestor (wing of bird and wing of a mosquito). Doesnot imply common ancestry. Indicates different solutions to the same evolutionaryproblem.Vestigial organ—A structure that is a historical/evolutionary remnant of a structure thatwas important in evolutionary ancestors (appendix in humans, pelvis in a whale). Sincesnakes have a vestigial pelvis, scientists think they evolved from a lizard ancestor.Fossil Record—The fish/amphibian/reptile/bird/mammal fossil pattern found in rockstrata over the entire Earth is evidence that the different types of vertebrates evolvedin that order.Comparative Embryology--the study of the similarities and differences amongvarious organisms during the embryologic period of development. Organismswith more similar embryonic development patterns are more related than thosewith different patterns.Comparative Biochemistry and Molecular Biology—Comparing the DNA,RNA,Protein Structures, and metabolic pathways of related organisms. Organismswho share these characteristics must have inherited them from a commonancestor.Artificial Selection—evolution brought about by selective breeding (examples: dogbreeds, crop plants). Man-made evolution—Works much faster than natural evolution.The argument is that if humans can make evolution happen, so can nature.Direct Observation of Microevolution—Development of antibiotic and pesticide

resistance have been witnessed within the last 75 years.Biogeography--The geographic distribution of organisms on Earth follows patternsthat are best explained by evolution, in combination with the movement oftectonic plates over geological time. For example, broad groupings of organismsthat had already evolved before the breakup of thesupercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) tend to be distributedworldwide. In contrast, broad groupings that evolved after the breakup tend toappear uniquely in smaller regions of Earth. For instance, there are unique groupsof plants and animals on northern and southern continents that can be traced tothe split of Pangaea into two supercontinents (Laurasia in the north, Gondwana inthe south). The evolution of unique species on islands is another example of howevolution and geography intersect. For instance, most of the mammal species inAustralia are marsupials (carry young in a pouch), while most mammal specieselsewhere in the world are placental (nourish young through a placenta).Australia’s marsupial species are very diverse and fill a wide range of ecologicalroles. Because Australia was isolated by water for millions of years, these specieswere able to evolve without competition from (or exchange with) mammalspecies elsewhere in the world.

Patterns of EvolutionGradualism--Gradualism is selection and variation that happens gradually. Over a shortperiod of time it is hard to notice. Small variations that fit an organism slightly better toits environment are selected for: a few more individuals with more of the helpful traitsurvive, and a few more with less of the helpful trait die. Very gradually, over a long time,the population changes. Change is slow,constant, and consistent.Punctuated Equilibrium--In punctuated equilibrium, change comes in spurts. There is aperiod of very little change, and then one or a few huge changes occur, often throughmutations in the genes of a few individuals. Punctuated equilibrium can also occur dueto sudden/cataclysmic changes in the environment that result in more rapid changes inthe organisms through harsher selection.

Phylogenetic Relationships/Shared Ancestry Phylogeny--The history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference tolines of descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms. Ways to establish phylogenetic relationships between organisms: Compare DNA/RNA sequences of specific genes. The more similar thesequences, the more recently the organisms shared a common ancestor. Compare the amino acid sequences of specific proteins. The more similar thesequences, the more similar the DNA/genes, the more recently the organismsshared a common ancestor. Compare morphology/shared derived traits. The more traits the organismsshare, the more recently they shared a common ancestor.Methods Used to Depict Phylogenetic Relationships Phylogenetic Tree--A branching treelike diagram used to illustrate evolutionary(phylogenetic) relationships among organisms. Each node, or point of divergence, has twobranching lines of descendance, indicating evolutionary divergence from a commonancestor. A phylogenetic tree is drawn like a branching tree diagram in which branch lengthis proportional to the evolutionary distance/time between organisms. This is not true in a

cladogram. Cladograms do not indicate time. Branch lengths are typically all the same lengthin a cladogram. Cladogram--A branching treelike diagram used to illustrate evolutionary (phylogenetic)relationships among organisms. Each node, or point of divergence, has two branching lines ofdescendance, indicating evolutionary divergence from a common ancestor. A cladogram is atype of phylogenetic tree.ImportantTerms to Know Clade--a group of biological taxa (such as species) that includes all descendants of onecommon ancestor. Root--The initial ancestor common to all organisms within the cladogram. This is thepoint which begins the cladogram. Morphology--a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure oforganisms and their specific structural features. Ancestral Trait--a trait shared by a group of organisms as a result of descent from acommon ancestor. Derived Trait--a trait that is present in an organism, but was absent in the lastcommon ancestor of the group being considered. Outgroup—An outgroup is a group of organisms that serves as a reference groupwhen determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, the set oforganisms under study. The chosen outgroup is hypothesized to be less closelyrelated to the ingroup than the ingroup is related to itself. The evolutionaryconclusion from these relationships is that the outgroup species has a commonancestor with the ingroup that is older than the common ancestor of theingroup. Node-- Each node corresponds to a hypothetical common ancestor that speciatedto give rise to two (or more) daughter taxa. Cladograms can be rotated aroundeach node without changing the meaning/relationships depicted by thecladogram. Clade/Monophyletic Group-- A common ancestor and all of its descendants (i.e.a node and all of its connected branches)

Constructing a Cladogram Based on Morphology Begin by constructing a character table like the one included on the proceeding slide.In the table use a “1” to indicate that an organism possesses a trait and a “0” to indicatethat an organism does not possess the trait. The trait possessed by all of the organisms is the ancestral trait.

CharacterTableConstructing a Cladogram Based on Morphology Step 1: Draw a single right slanted line from the bottom left corner of your papertoward the top right-hand corner of the page. At the top of the line, list the mostcomplex group of organisms. This organism should possess more of the sharedderived traits than any of the other organisms. This line will be the main evolutionarypathway or line. Step 2: Determine the first outgroup. This is the most primitive (oldest) group oforganisms. It will share only one of the traits (the ancestral trait) with the other taxa(clades) and therefore will be your first outgroup. Just up from the root ofyourcladogram (bottom left corner) draw a left slanted line off of the main line. At the top ofthe line write the name of the taxon of your first outgroup. Step 3: Just below and to the left of the outgroup line, draw a short horizontal line acrossthe main line. At the end of this small line, write the name of the ancestral trait, the traitshared by all of the organisms in the cladogram. Step 4: Just above the outgroup line, draw a left slanted line that will show the next

most primitive group or second outgroup. List the group name at the endof the line.This group should possess only the ancestral trait and one additional shared derivedtrait. These and all the other organisms that evolved later are referred to as theingroup . Step 4: Between the first outgroup line and the line drawn in Step 4, draw a smallhorizontal line across the main line. At the right end of the small line, write the nameof the shared derived trait that separates the first outgroup from the first taxa in theingroup. Step 6: Looking at the character table, decide the next group of organisms to become thenext outgroup each time. Draw another left leaning line for them and list their name atthe end of the line. Be sure to use horizontal lines across the main line to indicate thetraits which separate the outgroups. Only traits shared by all of the organisms above andto the right of the indicated line should be included on the main line. Step 7: Repeat until all groups of organisms have been listed or branched off of the mainevolutionary line. Step 8: If you have two groups of organisms in the same outgroup, draw one left leaningline for the group. Have a second right leaning line branching off of this left leaning line.On this second right leaning line, draw a small horizontal line and list the separating traithere. (Just as you did on the main line.)Using Molecular Evidence to Create Cladograms All organisms use DNA and RNA as genetic material and the genetic code by whichproteins are synthesized is (almost) universal. This shared molecular heritage means that nitrogenous base and amino acidsequences can be compared to ascertain levels of relatedness. Over the course of millions of years, mutations will accumulate within any givensegment of DNA. The number of differences between comparable base sequences demonstrates thedegree of evolutionary divergence. A greater number of differences between comparable base sequences suggestsmore time has passed since two species diverged, Hence, the more similar the base sequences of two species are, the more closelyrelated the two species are expected to be. When comparing molecular sequences, scientists may use non-coding DNA, genesequences or amino acid sequences. Non-coding DNA provides the best means of comparison as mutations will occurmore readily in these sequences.

Gene sequences mutate at a slower rate, as changes to base sequences maypotentially affect protein structure and function. Amino acid sequences may also be used for comparison, but will have the slowest rateof change due to codon dege

Hardy Weinberg Equations The Hardy-Weinberg equation is a mathematical equation that can be used to calculate the genetic variation of a population at equilibrium. In 1908, G. H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg independently described a basic principle of population genetics, which is now named the Hardy-Weinberg equation.