CREEP AND SHRINKAGE PERFORMANCE OF KENAF BIO FIBROUS .
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE PERFORMANCE OF KENAF BIO FIBROUSCONCRETE COMPOSITESOGUNBODE EZEKIEL BABATUNDEA thesis submitted in fulfilment of therequirement for the award of the degree ofDoctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)Faculty of Civil EngineeringUniversiti Teknologi MalaysiaDECEMBER 2017
iiiDEDICATIONThis thesis is dedicated to my beloved wife Eunice Seyi and children EzekielOreoluwa, Emmanuel Ireoluwa and Elisha Ooreoluwa for their endless love, support,sacrifice, and encouragement.“Thank you for all the patience and endurance during this PhD voyage.”
ivACKNOWLEDGEMENTPraise is to God, the Lord of the world. My profound gratitude is to Al-MightyGod first, by whose will and power this thesis report came into being.I wish to express my sincere and profound gratitude to my main thesissupervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Jamaludin Mohamad Yatim for his continuingassistance, the encouragement, guidance, critics and understanding throughout theperiod of my studies. The trust, patience, great insight, modesty and friendlypersonality demonstrated by him have always been my source of inspiration. I am alsovery grateful to my thesis co-supervisor, Dr. Yunus Mohd Bin Ishak. He’s wonderfulpersonality cannot be quantified.The author is greatly indebted to Faculty of Civil Engineering (FKA) for thesupport and facilities provided to carry out the experimental work. Same goes to theacademic and non-academic staff of the faculty for their support, assistance andfriendly treatment that facilitated the work. I remain immensely grateful for thefinancial support by the management of Federal University of Technology, Minna,Nigeria, through Federal Government of Nigeria Tertiary Education Trust Fund(TETFUND). Same goes to UTM International Doctoral Fellowship (IDF).The patience demonstrated by my lovely wife Eunice Seyi and children EzekielOreoluwa, Emmanuel Ireoluwa and Elisha Ooreoluwa during this study is gratefullyacknowledged. Same goes to my lovely parent Mr Simeon O. Ogunbode and MrsVictoria Ogunbode. I appreciate the love bestowed on me and my family by mysiblings, Femi, Solomon and Seyi Ogunbode. Dr. and Mrs Olukowi P., Assoc. Prof.Dr. and Mrs Akanmu W.P., Mr and Mrs Adeyi Sam., Mr Olaiju O.A., and Mr andMrs Sunday Adewale. I will eternally be grateful to you, words cannot appreciate youenough. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Jimoh R.A. and my fellow colleagues in the Department ofBuilding FUT Minna, are appreciated. Finally, the cooperation enjoyed by myresearch colleagues is highly appreciated.
vABSTRACTFibrous Concrete Composite (FCC) is a high performance concrete thatpossesses an improved tensile strength and ductility with restraint to shrinkage andcreep under sustained load compared to Plain Concrete (PC). As a result of globalquest for sustainable, renewable and green materials to achieve a bio based economyand low carbon foot print environment, the use of fibre to produce fibrous concretecomposite has continuously received significant research attention. While severalresearches have been conducted on metallic and synthetic fibrous concretes, theyexhibit several unavoidable drawbacks and bio fibrous concrete has been proved to bea better alternative. This research investigates the creep and shrinkage performance ofconcrete reinforced with Kenaf bio fibre. After material characterization, concretereinforced with fibre optimum volume fraction of 0.5% and length of 50 mm was usedfor the study. The fresh and hardened properties of the concrete were studied undershort term quasi static loading. Thereafter, the compressive creep test, uniaxial tensilecreep test and flexural creep test at 25% and 35% stress levels at creep loading ages of7 and 28-day hydration period were conducted. The long term deformation behaviourof the Kenaf Bio Fibrous Concrete Composite (KBFCC) was observed and monitored.Results show that the compressive creep strains of KBFCC is 60.88% greater than thePC, but the deformation behaviour of the specimens shows 33.78% improvement inductility. Also, uniaxial tensile creep response of fibrous concrete deforms at the rateof 0.00283 mm/day and 0.00702 mm/day at 25% and 35% stress level respectively,but the deformation rate becomes insignificant after 90 days due to the presence offibre. In addition, the flexural creep test reveals that 0.064 mm/day and 0.073 mm/daydeformation rate at 25% stress level of the KBFCC becomes less significant after 40days of loading. The outcome of the morphology image analysis on the concretecomposite shows that Kenaf fibres act as bridges across the cracks, which enhancesthe load-transfer capacity of the matrix, thus influencing the long term performance ofKBFCC. Accordingly, statistical analysis shows that the CEB-FIP creep model is thebest fit model for predicting compressive and tensile creep of KBFCC, while EC2creep and shrinkage models are for predicting flexural creep and shrinkage strain ofKBFCC, respectively. A creep and shrinkage prediction model is proposed based onthe experimental data for better prediction of KBFCC. Conclusively, KBFCC exhibitsappreciable shrinkage, tensile and flexural strength under static short term and longterm sustained loads compared to PC.
viABSTRAKKomposit konkrit bergentian (FCC) merupakan konkrit yang berkualiti tinggiyang mempunyai kekuatan tegangan dan kekangan kemuluran yang diperbaharuikepada pengecutan dan rayapan di bawah beban sekata berbanding dengan konkritbiasa (PC). Hasil daripada usaha global untuk bahan lestari, diperbaharui dan hijaubagi mencapai ekonomi berasaskan bio dan alam sekitar berkarbon rendah, makapenggunaan gentian bagi menghasilkan komposit konkrit bergentian terus mendapatperhatian yang ketara dalam bidang penyelidikan. Walaupun beberapa kajian telahdijalankan terhadap konkrit berserat metalik dan sintetik, kajian itu menunjukkanbeberapa kekurangan yang tidak dapat dielakkan dan konkrit bergentian bio telahterbukti sebagai pilihan alternatif yang lebih baik. Kajian ini mengkaji prestasi rayapandan pengecutan konkrit bertetulang dengan gentian bio Kenaf. Setelah pencirianbahan, konkrit bertetulang dengan gentian pecahan isipadu optimum sebanyak 0.5%dan panjang 50 mm digunakan untuk kajian ini. Ciri-ciri konkrit yang baharu dan kerastelah dikaji di bawah beban statik kuasi jangka pendek. Seterusnya, ujian rayapanmampatan, ujian rayapan tegangan tidak berpaksi dan ujian rayapan lenturan pada25% dan 35% tahap tekanan pada umur pengambilan rayapan 7 dan 28 hari tempohpenghidratan telah dijalankan. Tingkah laku Komposit Konkrit Bergentian Kenaf Bio(KBFCC) kepada perubahan bentuk dalam tempoh jangka panjang telah dikenal pastidan dipantau. Keputusan ujian telah menunjukkan bahawa perubahan rayapanmampatan KBFCC adalah 60.88% lebih besar daripada konkrit biasa, tetapi perubahanbentuk tingkah laku terhadap spesimen menunjukkan 33.78% peningkatan dalamkemuluran. Selain itu, tindak balas serapan tegangan tidak berpaksi terhadap konkritbergentian masing-masing berubah bentuk pada kadar 0.00283 mm/hari dan 0.00702mm/hari pada tahap tekanan 25% dan 35%, tetapi kadar perubahan bentuk menjaditidak berubah selepas 90 hari dengan kehadiran gentian. Di samping itu, ujianrintangan lenturan menunjukkan kadar perubahan bentuk pada 0.064 mm/hari dan0.073 mm/hari dengan tahap tekanan 25% daripada KBFCC menjadi tidak ketaraselepas 40 hari pembebanan. Hasil analisis imej morfologi pada komposit konkritmenunjukkan bahawa gentian Kenaf bertindak sebagai agen pengikat yang merentasiretak, yang meningkatkan kapasiti pemindahan beban matriks, justeru mempengaruhiprestasi KBFCC dalam jangka masa yang panjang. Dengan demikian, analisis statistikmenunjukkan bahawa model rayapan CEB-FIP merupakan model terbaik untukmenganggarkan mampatan dan rayapan tegangan KBFCC, manakala masing-masingmodel rayapan dan pengecutan EC2 pula menganggarkan lenturan rayapan dantegangan pengecutan KBFCC. Model anggaran rayapan dan pengecutan dicadangkanberdasarkan data eksperimen untuk ramalan KBFCC yang lebih baik. Secarakesimpulannya, KBFCC mempamerkan pengecutan, kekuatan tegangan dan lenturanyang ketara di bawah beban jangka pendek dan jangka panjang yang dapat menahanbeban statik berbanding PC.
viiTABLE OF iiACKNOWLEDGEMENTivABSTRACTvABSTRAKviTABLE OF CONTENTSviiLIST OF TABLESxviiiLIST OF FIGURESxxiiLIST OF ABBREVIATIONSxxxiLIST OF SYMBOLSxxxiiiLIST OF APPENDICESxxxivINTRODUCTION1General Appraisal1Background of the Problem3Statement of the Problem5Aim and Objectives7Scope of the Study7Thesis Organization9LITERATURE REVIEW11Introduction11Fibres11Concept of Fibrous Concrete Composite (FCC)122.3.1 Composite122.3.2 Bio-Composites14
viii2.3.3 Fibrous Concrete Composite (FCC)14Bio Fibres182.4.1 Properties of Bio Fibres222.4.2 Bio Fibre Moisture Content232.4.2.1 Kinetics of Water Absorption242.4.2.2 Mechanism of Water Transport252.4.3 Bio Fibre Chemical Surface Treatment262.4.4 Bio Fibre Alkaline Surface Treatment27Effects of Fibre Volume Ratio and Length of Fibre29Properties of Bio Fibrous Concrete Composites30Characteristics of Kenaf Fibre352.7.1 Economy of Kenaf Fibres382.7.2 Physical and Mechanical of Kenaf Fibre Properties392.7.3 Interface Properties between Kenaf Fibre and Matrix412.7.4 Properties of Kenaf Fibrous Composites41Kenaf Bio Fibrous Concrete Composites (KBFCC) and itsMixture Properties422.8.1 Compression Properties of KBFCC432.8.2 Tension Properties of KBFCC452.8.3 Flexural Properties of KBFCC47Elastic Modulus of Concrete482.9.1 Elastic Modulus Prediction by ACI-318492.9.2 Elastic Modulus Prediction by BS 8110502.9.3 Elastic Modulus Prediction by CEB-FIP 1990502.9.4 Elastic Modulus Prediction by AS 3600512.9.5 Elastic Modulus Prediction by EC 252Concept of Long Term Behaviour of Fibrous ConcreteComposite532.10.1 Characteristics of Long Term Deformations532.10.2 Long-Term Deformations Behaviour andMechanisms542.10.3 The Mechanism Initiating Creep in Concrete562.10.4 Creep behaviour of Concrete under Sustained Load562.10.5 Shrinkage Performance of Concrete57
ix2.10.6 Importance of Studying Shrinkage of Concrete582.10.7 Previous Studies on Creep and Shrinkagedeformation of Fibrous Concrete Composites58Criteria for Derivation and Analysis of Creep and ShrinkageModel602.11.1 Creep Model Derivation612.11.2 Derivation of Creep Coefficient632.11.2.1 Hyperbolic Expression632.11.2.2 Power Expression642.11.2.3 Logarithmic Expression652.11.2.4 Exponential Expression662.11.2.5 Double Power Law662.11.2.6 Triple Power Law672.11.3 Derivation of Shrinkage Strain682.11.4 Findings on Creep and Shrinkage deformationbehaviour of Fibrous Concrete Composites368Summary of Research Gap77RESEARCH METHODOLOGY79Introduction79Experimental Framework803.2.1 Compressive Creep Testing Details833.2.2 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Testing Details843.2.3 Flexural Creep Testing Details85Concrete Materials873.3.1 Kenaf Fibre883.3.2 Ordinary Portland Cement893.3.3 Crushed Coarse Aggregate903.3.4 Fine Aggregate903.3.5 Water903.3.6 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)913.3.7 Superplasticizer92Experimental Work for Kenaf Fibre Characterisation923.4.1 Pre-treatment of Kenaf Fibre93
x3.4.2 Chemical Treatment of Kenaf Fibre943.4.3 Water Sorption953.4.3.1 Kinetics of Water Absorption963.4.4 Tensile Test on Kenaf Fibre973.4.5 Surface Morphology of Kenaf Fibre98Experimental Work on Kenaf Fibre Optimum Length andVolume Fraction for the Production of KBFCC993.5.1 Kenaf Fibre Inclusion in Concrete Mix993.5.2 Concrete Mix Design and Optimization1003.5.3 KBFCC Mixing Procedure1023.5.4 Details of Formwork and Hardened ConcreteSpecimen1043.5.5 Assemblage of Moulds for Uniaxial TensileInvestigation106Test Setup for Fresh and Hardened Properties of KBFCC1073.6.1 Fresh Concrete Properties Test1073.6.1.1 Slump Test (ASTM C143/C143M, 2015)1083.6.1.2 Vebe Test (BS EN, 12350-3: 2009)1083.6.1.3 Compacting Factor Test (BS 1881-103: 1993)1093.6.2 Hardened Concrete Properties Test of KBFCC1103.6.2.1 Initial Surface Absorption (BS 1881: Part 208,1996)1123.6.2.2 Porosity and Water Absorption Test (ASTMC642/C642M, 2013)1133.6.2.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test (ASTMC597/C597M, 2009)3.6.2.4 CompressiveStrength115Test(ASTMC39/C39M, 2012 and BS EN 12390-3 (2002)3.6.2.5 IndirectTensileStrengthTest116(ASTMC496/C496M, 2011)1183.6.2.6 Flexural Strength Test (ASTM C78/C78M,2010)1193.6.2.7 Uniaxial Tensile Strength Test (Method byBabafemi and Boshoff, 2015)120
xi3.6.2.8 ModulusofElasticityTest(ASTMC469/C469M, 2014)1223.6.2.9 Drying Shrinkage Test (ASTM C157/C157M,2008)123Preliminary Short Term Compressive Creep Test onDifferent Specimen Sizes125Experiment Test Controlled Room126Long-Term Performance Test on the PC and KBFCC1273.9.1 Compressive Creep Test on Specimens1273.9.1.1 Compressive Creep Samples Preparation1273.9.1.2 Compressive Creep Test Apparatus1283.9.1.3 Compressive Creep Test Procedures1303.9.1.4 Compressive Creep Calculations1313.9.2 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Test on Specimens1323.9.2.1 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Samples Preparation1333.9.2.2 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Test Apparatus1333.9.2.3 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Test Procedures1343.9.2.4 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Calculations1363.9.3 Flexural Creep Test on Specimens1373.9.3.1 Flexural Creep Samples Preparation1373.9.3.2 Flexural Creep Test Apparatus1383.9.3.3 Flexural Creep Test Procedures141Theoretical Development and Evaluation of PredictionModels of Concrete Creep and Shrinkage1423.10.1 Creep Model Code1443.10.1.1 CEB-FIP Model Code for Creep1443.10.1.2 ACI 209 Model for Creep1463.10.1.3 Eurocode 2 (EC 2) Model for Creep1483.10.1.4 AS 3600 Model Code for Creep1483.10.2 Shrinkage Model Code1493.10.2.1 CEB-FIP Model Code for Shrinkage1493.10.2.2 ACI 209 Model Code for Shrinkage1513.10.2.3 Eurocode 2 (EC 2) Model for Shrinkage1523.10.2.4 AS 3600 Model for Shrinkage153
xii3.10.3 Evaluation of the Creep and Shrinkage PredictionModels1543.10.4 Comparison of Existing Creep Prediction Models toExperimental Creep Test ResultsSummary on the Research Materials and Methods4155158EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION OFMATERIALS, FRESH AND HARDENED STATEPROPERTIES OF KBFCC159Introduction159Characteristics of Kenaf Fibre1594.2.1 Physical Properties of Kenaf Fibre1604.2.1.1 Kenaf Fibre Surface Modification, Appearanceand Morphology1604.2.1.2 Effect of Fibre Treatment on Kenaf FibreMechanism of Sorption (Water Uptake)1624.2.1.3 Mechanism of Water Transport1644.2.1.4 Kenaf Fibre Diameter1654.2.1.5 Kenaf Fibre Density1674.2.2 Tensile Properties of Kenaf fibre1684.2.2.1 Kenaf Fibre in Untreated State1684.2.2.2 Kenaf fibre in treated state170Characteristics of Coarse Aggregate1714.3.1 Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregate1714.3.2 Grading of coarse aggregate173Characteristic of Fine Aggregate1744.4.1 Physical Characteristic of Fine Aggregate1744.4.2 Grading of Fine Aggregate175Results of Fresh State Properties of PC and KBFCC1764.5.1 Workability1774.5.1.1 Effect of Kenaf Fibre on the Slumpof Concrete4.5.1.2 Effect of Kenaf Fibre on the Vebe of Concrete177179
xiii4.5.1.3 Effect of Kenaf Fibre on the CompactingFactor of Concrete1804.5.1.4 Correlation between Vebe Time and Slump ofPC and KBFCC1814.5.1.5 Correlation between Compacting Factor andSlump of PC and KBFCC1824.5.1.6 Correlation between Compacting Factor andVebe Time of PC and KBFCC1834.5.2 Importance of the Correlation between VariablesAssociated with Fresh Properties of PC and KBFCC1844.5.3 Fresh Density185Results of Hardened State Properties of PC and KBFCC1864.6.1 Hardened State Density of PC and KBFCC1864.6.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of PC and KBFCC1874.6.3 Correlation between Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)and Compressive Strength (CPS) of Concrete1884.6.4 Porosity and Water Permeability (Water Absorption)of PC and KBFCC1904.6.5 Initial Surface Absorption of PC and KBFCC1914.6.6 Influence of Kenaf Fibre Reinforcement on theStrength and Deformation Characteristics of PC andKBFCC under Compression, Tension and Flexure.1954.6.6.1 Compressive Strength of PC and KBFCC1954.6.6.2 Indirect Splitting Tensile Strength of PC andKBFCC1974.6.6.3 Uniaxial tensile (Direct Tensile) Strength ofPC and KBFCC1994.6.6.4 Flexural Strength of PC and KBFCC2044.6.6.5 Elastic Modulus of PC and KBFCC2064.6.6.6 RelationshipbetweenExperimentalandPredictive Model of Elastic Modulus of PC andKBFCC4.6.6.7 Poisson’s Ratio of PC and KBFCC4.6.7 Shrinkage of PC and KBFCC209212212
xivPreliminary Compressive Creep Experimental Results2164.7.1 Effect of Specimen Size on Compressive Creep Test216Summary of Materials Characterization, Fresh and HardenedState Properties of KBFCC5220EXPERIMENTAL TESTING ON THE INTERFACEMORPHOLOGIES OF KBFCC6222Introduction222Microstructural Analysis222Scanning Electron Microscopy223Interfaces in KBFCC226Summary of the KBFCC Interface Morphologies Study228CREEP AND SHRINKAGE PERFORMANCE OF KBFCC229Introduction229Compressive Creep of PC and KBFCC2296.2.1 Analysis of Compressive Creep Test Results of PCand KBFCC6.2.1.1 Effects230ofKenafFibreInclusiononCompressive Creep Performance of Concrete2306.2.1.2 Loading Condition (Stress Level) Effects onCompressive Creep Performance of PC andKBFCC6.2.1.3 Loading232AgeConditionEffectsonCompressive Creep Performance of PC andKBFCC2336.2.1.4 Relationship between Compressive Strengthand Compressive Creep Strain6.2.2 Compressive Creep Coefficient2342376.2.2.1 Loading Conditions (Stress Level) Effects onCompressive Creep Coefficient2376.2.2.2 Loading Age (Curing Conditions) Effects onCompressive Creep Coefficient238
xv6.2.2.3 Fibre Inclusion Effects on Compressive CreepCoefficient2396.2.2.4 Compressive Strength Effects at loading Ageon Compressive Creep Coefficient6.2.2.5 TrendAnalysisonCompressive241CreepCoefficient and Standard code Models2436.2.2.6 Statistical Comparison for Compressive CreepCoefficient and Standard Code ModelsUniaxial Tensile Creep of PC and KBFCC2452486.3.1 Analysis of Uniaxial Tensile Creep Test Results ofPC and KBFCC2486.3.1.1 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Results of Pre-CrackedPC and KBFCC specimens2496.3.1.2 Uniaxial Tensile Creep Coefficient of Precracked PC and KBFCC Specimens2526.3.1.3 Trend Analysis on Tensile Creep Coefficientand Standard Code ModelsFlexural Creep of PC and KBFCC2542586.4.1 Analysis of Flexural Creep Test Results of PC andKBFCC2586.4.1.1 Load-Deflection of Flexural Test of PC andKBFCC Specimen for Creep2596.4.1.2 Load-Deflection Behaviour of PC and KBFCCBeam Specimen for Creep2606.4.1.3 Effect of Kenaf Fibre on Toughness of KBFCCBeam Specimen for Flexural Creep6.4.2 Flexural Creep Results of Pre-cracked PC andKBFCC Specimens264xvi2676.4.2.1 Effects of Loading Condition (Stress Level) onFlexural Creep Performance of PC andKBFCC2686.4.2.2 Effects of Loading Age Condition (moistcuring) on Flexural Creep Performance of PCand KBFCC270
6.4.2.3 Trend Analysis on Flexural Creep Coefficientand Standard Code Models2716.4.2.4 Statistical Comparison for Flexural CreepCoefficient and Standard Code Models272Proposed Prediction Model for PC and KBFCC CreepCoefficient2756.5.1 Evaluation Methods on the Goodness of Fit275Shrinkage of PC and KBFCC2796.6.1 Analysis of Shrinkage Test Results of PC andKBFCC2806.6.1.1 Effects of Kenaf Fibre Inclusion on ShrinkagePerformance of Concrete2806.6.1.2 Curing Condition (Moist Curing) Effects onShrinkage Performance of PC and KBFCC2836.6.1.3 Trend Analysis on Shrinkage Strain andStandard Code Models2846.6.1.4 Statistical Comparison for Shrinkage Strainand Standard Code Models7285Proposed PC and KBFCC shrinkage strain Prediction model288Summary of Results on Creep and Shrinkage Analysis289CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONIntroduction293293The Physical and Mechanical Properties of ConcreteContaining Kenaf Fibre at Varying Fibre Lengths andVolume Fractions.293The Effect of Kenaf Fibre on the Shrinkage and CreepProperties of KBFCC.294Microstructure Characteristics of KBFCC295Analytical Model for Estimation of Compressive, Tensileand Flexural Creep Behaviour of KBFCC296Signi
2.4.4 Bio Fibre Alkaline Surface Treatment 27 Effects of Fibre Volume Ratio and Length of Fibre 29 Properties of Bio Fibrous Concrete Composites 30 Characteristics of Kenaf Fibre 35 2.7.1 Economy of Kenaf Fibres 38 2.7.2 Physical and Mechanical of Kenaf Fibre Properties 39 2.7.3 Interface Properties between Kenaf Fibre and Matrix 41
Creep and creep-fatigue testing followed ASTM International Standards E606 and E2714, respectively. 3, 4. Creep rupture testing was performed at 600 C and 330 MPa in Applied Test Systems (ATS) creep frames. Testing was typically performed on creep frames with a 20:1 lever arm that multiplied the applied
Early age of shrinkage is normally defined as that occurring during the first day after batching, while long term refers to concrete at 24 hours and older. Plastic Shrinkage Plastic shrinkage occurs before setting due to moisture loss. Chemical Shrinkage Chemical shrinkage is also an early age behavior, especially in the first hour after mixing. It
most aluminum alloys, shrinkage during solidification is about 6% by volume. Lack of adequate feeding during casting process is the main reason for shrinkage defects. Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the radiograph. Fig. 4: Shrinkage[3] 2) Porosity:
MODELING AND CALCULATING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP IN HARDENED CONCRETE 209.2R·3 1.3.2 Linear aging model for creep-Experimental research indicates that creep may be considered approxi mately proportional to stress (L'Hermite et al. 1958; Keeton 1965), provided that the applied stress is less than 40% of the concrete compressive strength.
3.7 Compressometer for determination of modulus of elasticity (ASTM C469) 38 3.8 Splitting tensile (Brazilian) test (ASTM C496) 38 3.9 Length comparator (ASTM C157) 39 3.10 Restrained ring shrinkage test (ASTM C1581) 40 3.11 Reference measurement locations for creep shrinkage strain 41
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Although liquid shrinkage is important to the metal caster, it is not an important design consideration. Solidification shrinkage and solid shrinkage, on the other hand, are extremely important and must be carefully considered during casting design. Different alloys have differing amounts of liquid-to-solid shrinkage (e.g., aluminum 356
Egg yolk increased shrinkage Effects on fat phase Prevent shrinkage because they promote a strong fat network Partially-coalesced fat may adsorb to the air interface and provide physical barrier to air migration or channeling LMWS also shown to prevent shrinkage in low-fat products (Dubey and White 1996)
