Educational Assessment Of Students
Educational Assessmentof StudentsA01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 119/01/18 11:53 AM
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EIGHTH EDITIONEducational Assessmentof StudentsSusan M. BrookhartProfessor Emerita, Duquesne UniversityAnthony J. NitkoProfessor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013A01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 319/01/18 11:53 AM
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About the AuthorsSusan M. Brookhart is an independent consultant in educational assessment and ProfessorEmerita and former Chairperson of the Department of Educational Foundations and Leadershipin the School of Education at Duquesne University. She has served on several state assessmenttechnical advisory committees. Previous to herhigher education experience, she taught both elementary and middle school. Her research interests include the role of both formative andsummative classroom assessment in studentmotivation and achievement, the connectionbetween classroom assessment and large-scaleassessment, and grading.Professor Brookhart was the 2007–2009 editorof Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice.She has served as the education columnist forNational Forum, the journal of Phi Kappa Phi. Sheis a past president of the American EducationalResearch Association’s Special Interest Group onClassroom Assessment. She was named the 2014Jason Millman Scholar by the Consortium forResearch on Educational Assessment and Teaching Effectiveness (CREATE) and is the recipient ofthe 2015 Samuel J. Messick Memorial LectureAward from ETS/TOEFL.In all, Professor Brookhart is author or coauthor of 18 books and over 70 articles and bookchapters on classroom assessment, teacher professional development, and evaluation. WithAnthony J. Nitko, she is the coauthor of Assessment and Grading in Classrooms. With the late Norman E. Gronlund, she is the coauthor of Gronlund’sWriting Instructional Objectives (8th ed.). Some ofthe journals in which her research has appearedare Applied Measurement in Education, Assessmentin Education: Principles, Policy, & Practice, Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, Journal ofEducational Measurement, Journal of EducationalResearch, Oxford Review of Education, Review ofEducational Research, and Teachers College Record.She also serves on the editorial boards of AppliedMeasurement in Education, Assessment in Education:Principles, Policy, & Practice, Educational Assessment, and Teachers College Record.Professor Brookhart’s assessment books forpractitioners include How to Give Effective Feedback to Your Students, Formative Classroom Walkthroughs: How Principals and Teachers Collaborate toRaise Student Achievement (with Connie M. Moss),How to Assess Higher-Order Thinking Skills in YourClassroom, How to Use Grading to Support Learning,Learning Targets: Helping Students Aim for Understanding in Today’s Lesson (with Connie M. Moss),and How to Create and Use Rubrics for FormativeAssessment and Grading.Anthony J. Nitko is a private consultant in educational measurement and Professor Emeritusand former Chairperson of the Department ofPsychology in Education at the University ofPittsburgh. His research interests includecurriculum-based criterion-referenced testing,integrating testing and instruction, classroomassessment, and the assessment of knowledgeand higher-order thinking skills.Professor Nitko is author of the chapter“Designing Tests That Are Integrated withvA01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 519/01/18 11:53 AM
vi ABOUT THE AUTHORSInstruction” in the Third Edition of EducationalMeasurement and coauthor (with Susan Brookhart)of Assessment and Grading in Classrooms. He coauthored (with Susan Brookhart) the chapter“Strategies for Constructing Assessments ofHigher-Order Thinking Skills” (2011). He also coauthored (with C. M. Lindvall) Measuring PupilAchievement and Aptitude (with T-C Hsu), Pitt Educational Testing Aids (PETA) (a package of computer programs for classroom teachers), and(with R. Glaser) the chapter “Measurement inLearning and Instruction” in the Second Editionof Educational Measurement.Professor Nitko has been Editor of the journalEducational Measurement: Issues and Practice, andlater served as the International News Editor ofthis journal. He was also Editor of d’News, theAERA Division D newsletter. Some of the journals in which his research has appeared includeAmerican Educational Research Journal, AppliedMeasurement in Education, Assessment in Education:A01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 6Principles, Policy, & Practice, Educational Evaluationand Policy Analysis, Educational Measurement:Issues and Practice, Educational Technology, Journalof Educational Measurement, and Research in Developmental Disabilities.Professor Nitko is a member of several professional organizations, was elected as Fellow to theAmerican Psychological Association, served onseveral committees of the American EducationalResearch Association, was elected Secretary ofAERA Division D, served on committees of theNational Council on Measurement in Education,and was elected to the Board of Directors and asPresident of the latter.Professor Nitko received Fulbright awards toMalawi and to Barbados. He has served as a consultant to various government and private agencies in Bangladesh, Barbados, Botswana, Egypt,Ethiopia, Indonesia, Jamaica, Jordan, Liberia,Malawi, Maldives, Namibia, Oman, Saudi Arabia,Singapore, United States, Viet Nam, and Yemen.22/01/18 4:24 PM
Brief ContentsPart I The Bases for Assessment12345Classroom Decision Making and UsingAssessment 1Describing the Goals of Instruction 18Validity of Assessment Results 37Reliability of Assessment Results 66Professional Responsibilities, Ethical Behavior,and Legal Requirements in EducationalAssessments 86Part II Crafting and Using Classroom6789101112131415AssessmentsPlanning for Integrating Assessmentand Instruction 107Diagnostic and FormativeAssessments 132Providing Formative Feedback 152Fill-in-the-Blank and True-FalseItems 166Multiple-Choice and Matching Exercises 181Higher-Order Thinking, Problem Solving,and Critical Thinking 218Essay Assessment Tasks 240Performance and PortfolioAssessments 260Preparing Your Students to Be Assessedand Using Students’ Results to ImproveYour Assessments 299Evaluating and Grading StudentAchievement 322Part III Interpreting and UsingStandardized Tests16 Standardized Achievement Tests 35417 Interpreting Norm-Referenced Scores 37718 Finding and Evaluating PublishedAssessments 41119 Scholastic Aptitude, Career Interests,Attitudes, and Personality Tests 425AppendixesABCDEFGHIJEducational Assessment Knowledge and Skillsfor Teachers 447Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education(Revised) 448Code of Professional Responsibilitiesin Educational Measurement 452Summaries of Taxonomies of EducationalObjectives: Cognitive, Affective, andPsychomotor Domains 457Implementing the Principles of UniversalDesign via Technology-Based Testing 464Basic Statistical Concepts 466Computational Procedures for VariousReliability Coefficients 479A Limited List of Published Tests 484List of Test Publishers and Their Websites 486Answers to Even-Numbered Exercises 487Glossary 491References 511Name Index 523Subject Index 526viiA01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 719/01/18 11:53 AM
ContentsPart I The Bases for Assessment1Classroom Decision Making and UsingAssessment 1What Is Assessment? 2Assessment and Classroom Decisions 7Assessment and Educational Decisions AboutStudents 7High-Stakes Assessment and Accountability 14Assessment Literacy 16Conclusion 17Exercises 172Describing the Goals of Instruction18Importance of Specifying LearningOutcomes 19Educational Goals, State Standards,and Learning Objectives 20Evaluating the Learning Objectives of aCourse or Unit 24How to Write Specific Learning Objectives 24Aligning Assessment Tasks with LearningObjectives 28Sources for Locating LearningObjectives 30Taxonomies of Learning Objectives 30Cognitive Domain Taxonomies 31Conclusion 36Exercises 363Validity of Assessment ResultsGeneral Nature of Validity 38Four Principles for Validation 3837Validity of Teacher-Made ClassroomAssessment Results 40Validity of Large-Scale Assessment Results 45Validity Issues When AccommodatingStudents with Disabilities 62Conclusion 64Exercises 644Reliability of Assessment Results66General Nature of Reliability 67Causes of Measurement Erroror Inconsistency 68Reliability of Classroom Assessments 68Reliability of Large-Scale Assessments 71Obtained Scores, True Scores,and Error Scores 78Standard Error of Measurement 78Reliability of Mastery and Pass-FailDecisions 81Factors Affecting Reliability and SEM and Howto Improve Reliability 83Conclusion 85Exercises 855Professional Responsibilities, EthicalBehavior, and Legal Requirementsin Educational Assessments 86A Teacher’s Professional Responsibilitiesin Assessment 87Six Categories of Responsibility for Teachers 88Students’ Rights and Responsbilitiesas Test-Takers 96Secrecy, Access, Privacy, Confidentiality,and the Teacher 98viiiA01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 822/01/18 4:30 PM
CONTENTSix10Testing Challenged in Court 100Bias in Educational Assessment 102Conclusion 105Exercises 105Part II Crafting and Using ClassroomAssessments6 Planning for Integrating Assessmentand Instruction107Assessment Planning for a MarkingPeriod 108Assessment Planning for One Unitof Instruction 110Preassessment to Plan Your Teaching 112Planning for One Summative Assessment 113Improving the Validity of Assessment Plans 116What Range of Assessment OptionsIs Available? 119Differentiating Instruction 127Assessment Planning for Responseto Intervention 127Using Technology as an Aid in Assessment 128Conclusion 131Exercises 1317Diagnostic and Formative Assessments132Diagnostic Assessment 133Formative Assessment 140Learning Progressions 149A Coherent Assessment System 150Systematic Record Keeping 150Conclusion 151Exercises 1518Providing Formative Feedback152Types and Characteristics of Feedback 153Helping Students Use Feedback 157Differentiating Feedback 159Peer Feedback 162Feedback from Technology 163Conclusion 164Exercises 1659Fill-in-the-Blank and True-False ItemsThree Fundamental Principles for CraftingAssessments 167Fill-in-the-Blank Items 167True-False Items 172Conclusion 180Exercises 180A01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 9Multiple-Choice Items 182Creating Alternative Varieties of Multiple-ChoiceItems 199Matching Exercises 206Creating Basic Matching Exercises 208Creating Alternative Varieties of MatchingExercises 211Conclusion 216Exercises 21611Higher-Order Thinking, Problem Solving,and Critical Thinking 218Assessing Higher-Order Thinking 219Concept Learning 221Assessing Whether Students’ ThinkingUses Rules 224Problem Solving 226Critical Thinking 229Reading Skills 235Conclusion 238Exercises 23812Essay Assessment Tasks240Formats for Essay Items 241Usefulness of Essay Assessments 243Constructing Essays Assessing Subject-MatterLearning 245Optional Questions 249Constructing Prompts for Assessing WritingAchievement 249Scoring Essay Assessments 253Writing Assessment and Technology 256Conclusion 258Exercises 25813166Multiple-Choice and MatchingExercises 181Performance and PortfolioAssessments 260Performance Assessment 261Designing Performance Assessments 272Portfolios 291Conclusion 298Exercises 29814Preparing Your Students to Be Assessedand Using Students’ Results to ImproveYour Assessments 299Preparing Students for Assessment 300Testwiseness 30222/01/18 4:26 PM
x CONTENTSTest Anxiety 303Assessment Format and Appearance 305Correction for Guessing 306Item Analysis for Classroom Assessments 308Item Difficulty Index 314Item Discrimination Index 315Improving Multiple-Choice Item Quality 316Selecting Test Items 318Conclusion 320Exercises 321Normal Distributions 389Normalized Standard Scores 392Developmental and EducationalGrowth Scales 396Extended Normalized StandardScore Scales 396Grade-Equivalent Scores 397General Guidelines for Score InterpretationConclusion 409Exercises 4091518Evaluating and Grading StudentAchievement 322The Meanings and Purposes of Grades 323Reporting Methods 326Choosing a Grading Model 334Grading Practices 337Techniques for Combining Grades to SummarizeAchievement 343Conclusion 352Exercises 352Part III Interpreting and UsingStandardized Tests16 Standardized Achievement Tests 354405Finding and Evaluating PublishedAssessments 411Locating a Published Test 412Locating Evaluations of Published Tests 415Locating Computerized Testing Materials 417Locating Unpublished Test Materials 418Restrictions on Purchasing and Using Tests 418Evaluating and Selecting a Test 419Locating Information About YourState Tests 422Conclusion 424Exercises 42419Scholastic Aptitude, Career Interests,Attitudes, and Personality Tests 425Overview of Standardized Tests 355Varieties of Standardized Tests 357Commercially Published AchievementTests 358Federally Mandated State Assessments 364Commercially Produced Interim and BenchmarkAssessments and Services 366Other Commercially Available Tests 368Appropriate Uses of StandardizedTest Results 369Inappropriate Uses of StandardizedTest Results 371How to Administer Standardized Tests 372Ethical and Unethical Student Practicefor Standardized Tests 372Conclusion 374Exercises 374Aptitudes for Learning 426Group Tests of Scholastic Aptitudes 428Group Tests of Specific Aptitudes 433Individually Administered Tests of GeneralScholastic Aptitudes 436Assessing Adaptive Behavior 440Assessing Vocational and Career Interests 441Assessing Attitudes 444Assessing Personality Dimensions 444Conclusion 445Exercises 44517CInterpreting Norm-Referenced ScoresThree Referencing FrameworksUsing Norms 381Types of Norm Groups 382Norm-Referenced Scores 385Percentile Ranks 385Linear Standard Scores 387A01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 10378377AppendixesABDEEducational Assessment Knowledge andSkills for Teachers 447Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education(Revised) 448Code of Professional Responsibilities inEducational Measurement 452Summaries of Taxonomies of EducationalObjectives: Cognitive, Affective, andPsychomotor Domains 457Implementing the Principles of UniversalDesign via Technology-Based Testing 46419/01/18 11:53 AM
CONTENTSxiFGHIJBasic Statistical Concepts 466Computational Procedures for VariousReliability Coefficients 479A Limited List of Published Tests 484List of Test Publishers and TheirWebsites 486Answers to Even-Numbered Exercises 487A01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 11Glossary 491References 511Name Index 523Subject Index 526NOTE: Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internetinformation in this book. However, the Internet and information posted on itare constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internetaddresses listed in this textbook will change.19/01/18 11:53 AM
PrefaceAs for the previous editions, the goal of Educational Assessment of Students, Eighth Edition, is tohelp teachers and those in training to teach toimprove their skills through better assessment ofstudents. It focuses directly on the professionalpractices of elementary and secondary schoolteachers. This edition features: A continued strong emphasis on classroomassessment, both formative and summative.Complete coverage of the basics as well asadvanced topics and topics of contemporaryinterest.Practical advice and examples of how goodand poor classroom assessments affect students’ learning.A revised chapter on standardized testingto reflect recent changes in the assessmentlandscape.Educational Assessment of Students is a core textwritten for a first course in educational testing andconstructing classroom assessments, and it servesequally as the textbook for an undergraduate courseor a first graduate course in educational assessment.No formal coursework in statistics or college mathematics is necessary to understand the text.The book provides complete coverage of educational assessment, including developing plansthat integrate teaching and assessment; using formative assessment strategies and providing effective feedback to students; crafting objective,performance, and portfolio assessments; evaluating students and discussing evaluations withparents; and interpreting state-mandated testsand standardized achievement tests.It is important in a first course that studentsreceive a balanced treatment of the topics. Becausethe book is a comprehensive treatment of traditional and alternative assessments, we give examples, discuss the pros and cons, and give guidancefor crafting every assessment technique that weintroduce. Research is cited that supports or refutesassessment and teaching practices.The text prepares teachers and those in trainingto teach as professionals. We recognize that teachers’ experiences and judgments are necessary forproper and valid use of educational assessment.We do not hesitate to point out teachers’ andschool administrators’ erroneous judgments andassessment abuses, however, where good lessonscan be learned from them.NEW AND REVISED CONTENTIn preparing this edition, we made a special effortto make it easy for the reader to apply the material to classroom practice through improvedexplanations, improved practical examples andillustrations, checklists, and step-by-step, how-toinstructions. As with previous editions, we havewritten the text from the viewpoint that assessment is part of good teaching practice that helpsthe teacher improve students’ learning. Materialnew to the eighth edition includes:1. Updated information that reflects the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of2015 and the current assessment landscape.xiiA01 BROO7072 08 SE FM ppi-xvi.indd 1219/01/18 11:53 AM
PREFACExiii2. A change in the order of chapters to put thechapter on higher-order thinking before thechapter on essay questions.3. Up-to-date discussion of published achievement tests in Chapter 16.4. Update of websites related to assessment,including a discussion of how to access information about state testing programs on theInternet, and update of reference
Assessments 411 19 Scholastic Aptitude, Career Interests, Attitudes, and Personality Tests 425 Appendixes A Educational Assessment Knowledge and Skills for Teachers 447 B Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (Revised) 448 C Code of Professional Responsibilities in Educational Measurement 452 D Summaries of Taxonomies of Educational
assessment. In addition, several other educational assessment terms are defined: diagnostic assessment, curriculum-embedded assessment, universal screening assessment, and progress-monitoring assessment. I. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT . The FAST SCASS definition of formative assessment developed in 2006 is “Formative assessment is a process used
Assessment Guidelines a set of procedures for those involved in assessment which underpins assessment and which sets out the industry approach to valid, reliable, flexible and fair assessment. . assessment guidelines and could take the form of assessment exemplars or specific assessment tasks and instructions . checklist of practical .
AWS Conformity Assessment Report for: Coca Cola HBC Hrvatska d.o.o. LR reference: PIR0361689/ 3216964 AWS reference number: AWS-000317 Assessment dates: 10-11/12/2020 Assessment location: 1 Milana Sachsa, Zagreb 10000, Croatia Assessment criteria: AWS Standard Version 2, 22/03/2019 Assessment team: Artemis Papadopoulou Assessment type: Initial assessment
4.3.2 FORMAL ASSESSMENT (Summative Assessment / Assessment of Learning) All assessment tasks that make up a formal programme of assessment for the year are regarded as Formal Assessment. Formal assessment tasks are marked and formally recorded by the teacher for promotion, progression and
tangentially related to educational choice, and we view this as leading to the separation of educational guidance and counseling from career theory. In a comprehensive review of educational guidance literature published from 1933–1956, Hutson (1958) saw the counseling element of the educational
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ACCA ADVANCED DIPLOMA IN ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS MODULE Research and Analysis Project and Key Skills Statement ACCA DIPLOMA IN ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS (RQF LEVEL 4) ACCA DIPLOMA IN ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS (RQF LEVEL 4) ACCA GOVERNANCE ACCA (the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants) is the global body for professional accountants. We aim to offer .
