Bayesian Option Pricing Framework With Stochastic .
risksArticleBayesian Option Pricing Framework with StochasticVolatility for FX DataYing Wang 1 , Sai Tsang Boris Choy 2, * and Hoi Ying Wong 112*Department of Statistics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China;rachelwang415@gmail.com (Y.W.); hywong@sta.cuhk.edu.hk (H.Y.W.)Discipline of Business Analytics, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, AustraliaCorrespondence: boris.choy@sydney.edu.au; Tel.: 61-2-9351-2787Academic Editor: Qihe TangReceived: 31 August 2016; Accepted: 9 December 2016; Published: 16 December 2016Abstract: The application of stochastic volatility (SV) models in the option pricing literature usuallyassumes that the market has sufficient option data to calibrate the model’s risk-neutral parameters.When option data are insufficient or unavailable, market practitioners must estimate the modelfrom the historical returns of the underlying asset and then transform the resulting model into itsrisk-neutral equivalent. However, the likelihood function of an SV model can only be expressed in ahigh-dimensional integration, which makes the estimation a highly challenging task. The Bayesianapproach has been the classical way to estimate SV models under the data-generating (physical)probability measure, but the transformation from the estimated physical dynamic into its risk-neutralcounterpart has not been addressed. Inspired by the generalized autoregressive conditionalheteroskedasticity (GARCH) option pricing approach by Duan in 1995, we propose an SV model thatenables us to simultaneously and conveniently perform Bayesian inference and transformation intorisk-neutral dynamics. Our model relaxes the normality assumption on innovations of both returnand volatility processes, and our empirical study shows that the estimated option prices generaterealistic implied volatility smile shapes. In addition, the volatility premium is almost flat across strikeprices, so adding a few option data to the historical time series of the underlying asset can greatlyimprove the estimation of option prices.Keywords: option pricing; volatility smile; Student-t; variance gamma; Markov chain MonteCarlo (MCMC)1. IntroductionThe constant volatility assumption in the original Black–Scholes model has been criticized over theyears for its failure to produce the implied volatility smile. Time varying volatility offers a promisingremedy to capture the smile. For instance, the autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)models of [1] and the generalised ARCH (GARCH) models of [2] offer the possibility of capturingmany stylized time-varying volatility facts in a time series perspective. However, they were mainlyused in the investigation of economic series, until Duan ([3]) proposed a GARCH option pricingframework that enabled the GARCH model estimated from asset return series to be convenientlytransformed into a risk-neutral process for option pricing purposes. More precisely, the concept ofthe locally risk-neutral valuation relationship (LRNVR) was established by [3]. Although this optionpricing model successfully captures the volatility skewness of the equity option market, it is inadequateto generate the U-shaped volatility smiles in other option markets, such as commodity and foreignexchange (FX) markets.Two major drawbacks of the GARCH-type models were pointed out by [4]. First, the constraintsimposed on the parameters of these models to ensure a positive conditional variance are often violatedRisks 2016, 4, 51; doi:10.3390/risks4040051www.mdpi.com/journal/risks
Risks 2016, 4, 512 of 12during estimation. Second, a random oscillatory behaviour of the conditional variance process is ruledout. For the purpose of option pricing, Hull and White [5] proposed the stochastic volatility (SV)model, which contains an additional unobserved random process in the volatility. Heston [6] extendedthe SV model to allow for a non-zero correlation between the asset return and its volatility, whichis called the leverage effect in financial econometrics. Although SV models are often calibrated toobserved option data under the risk-neutral measure, option data are not always available for certainunderlying assets. When option data are unavailable, market practitioners must resort to estimatingthe model under the physical measure using historical asset returns, and then transforming the modelinto its risk-neutral counterpart for derivative pricing.Unlike GARCH models, SV models do not admit a computable likelihood function, which makesthe estimation a highly challenging task. While the maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) method isinfeasible, Cordis and Korby [7] introduced discrete stochastic autoregressive volatility (DSARV)models, in which volatilities only take discrete random values. These models greatly reducecomputational costs, because the MLE method can be applied. However, most SV models assumea continuous stochastic volatility, and the Bayesian framework has become a useful alternative forstatistical inference. The implementation of Bayesian methods usually requires the construction ofa Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation from the intractable joint posterior distribution.Jacquier et al. [8] analysed SV models with a leverage effect by adopting the Gibbs sampling scheme.Shephard and Pitt [9] employed the Metropolis–Hastings scheme for the same problem. Othergeneralizations include the work of [10–12], among others. Choy et al. [13] analysed variousFX data using different heavy-tailed SV models and found that there were no leverage effects.Wang et al. [14] considered SV models with leverage (SVL) and a bivariate Student-t error distribution.The t-distribution is expressed in a scale mixture of normal (SMN) representation, which significantlysimplifies the Gibbs sampler and dramatically reduces computational time. All of the methodspresented above are useful in the estimation of the SV model under the physical measure, but thetransformation into the risk-neutral process for option pricing can be a highly non-trivial task.The risk-neutral valuation for derivative pricing is concerned with the appropriate drift term ofthe asset return process under the pricing (risk-neutral) measure. However, most SV estimation ignoresthe drift term, speculating that it can be well estimated by sample mean. An exceptional case is thework by [15], but their drift specification cannot be effectively transformed into a risk-neutral processfor option pricing purposes. Bates [16] considered the transformation between the two measures andallowed the parameters of the volatility process to change, but he did not set up the locally risk-neutralvaluation formula for option pricing with stochastic volatility.Inspired by the concept of LRNVR in [3], we propose an SV model that enables a convenienttransformation into the risk-neutral process. Our model permits the innovations of the return andvolatility processes to have different heavy-tailed SMN distributions. Specifically, we choose a variancegamma (VG) error distribution in the return process and a Student-t error distribution in the volatilityprocess. We shall refer to this SV model as the VG-t SV model. For modelling FX data, no leverageeffect is assumed. The use of SMN distributions permits an efficient Bayesian inference using MCMCalgorithms, and provides a better fit to FX data. The VG distribution ([17]) has thicker tails than theGaussian distribution, retains finite moments for all orders, and offers a good empirical fit to thedata. Assuming a constant volatility, Madan et al. [18] applied the VG process to option pricing andshowed that the VG model fitted the volatility smile well. In this paper, we allow the volatility tohave a stochastic process. We derive the physical process that can be efficiently transformed into arisk-neutral process for the derivative pricing of FX rates.This paper also contributes to the literature by the use of the Bayesian framework in option pricingwith empirical data. We perform the estimation on an FX rate and then simulate option prices basedon the proposed model. We find evidence that heavy-tailed distributions for the FX return and itsvolatility have important implications. When both the FX return and its volatility marginally followSMN distributions, the generated implied volatility smile matches the shape of the market observed
Risks 2016, 4, 513 of 12implied volatility very well. The small gap between the model and market implied volatility smileis almost flat across strike prices. The difference between the model and market implied volatility isoften known as the volatility premium, and can be managed if a few option data are available. This isbecause the volatility premium is quite flat across strike prices.The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the model and problemformulation. Section 3 discusses the Bayesian estimation framework using SMN representations andMCMC methods. The simulations of option prices are also detailed. An empirical study on FX optionsis shown to justify the potential use of the framework. Specifically, the out-of-sample fit from ourframework outperforms the standard Black–Scholes model when compared with market option data.We also discuss how to further improve our framework by considering the volatility premium oncesome (but not necessarily many) option data are available. Finally, concluding remarks are made inSection 4.2. Stochastic Volatility Model and Option Pricing2.1. Problem FormulationConsider a fixed filtered complete probability space (Ω, F , P, Ft 0 ), where Ft is the filtrationgenerated by independent processes {ε t } and {ηt }, augmented by the null sets of the data-generating(physical) probability measure P. In addition, EP [ε t ] EP [ηt ] 0 for all t N. Let St be the underlyingasset price at time t. We construct the following discrete-time SV model under P: yt f σt2 σt ε t ,(1)ht µ φ(ht 1 µ) τηt ,(2)where yt ln St ln St 1 is the geometric return of an asset at time t, σt2 eht and ht are the volatilityand log-volatility at time t, and f (σt2 ) is the drift of the return process, which is a function of thevolatility in general. For the log-volatilities, the conditional mean and conditional variance of ht aregiven byE[ht ht 1 ] µ φ(ht 1 µ), and V[ht ht 1 ] τ 2 ,while the unconditional mean and unconditional variance can be derived asE[ht ] µ,andV[ h t ] τ2.1 φ2Obviously, µ is the unconditional mean of ht , and τ is the conditional standard deviation of ht .We assume that the persistence φ in the volatility equation satisfies φ 1 to ensure that ht is stationary.It remains to specify the drift function f (σt2 ) to complete the entire SV model for the asset returnprocess. We choose the drift function that meets the following three requirements.1.2.3.It should be a simple model that enables us to apply the standard Bayesian inference via MCMC;It should be convenient to transform the model under P to the model under Q,the risk-neutral probability;The resulting Q-process should generate option prices close to market prices.While the third requirement is justified empirically in a later section, we focus on the formertwo requirements.We use SMN distributions to model ε t and ηt so that the Bayesian inference for SV models reportedin the literature can be easily applied. For the second requirement, our model is developed using theconcept of LRNVR [3], which requires the following properties.
Risks 2016, 4, 514 of 12(P1 ) Equivalent probability measures: P( A) 0 iff Q( A) 0 for any event A;(P2 ) Martingale property: EQ [ St 1 Ft ] St er , where r is the one-step continuously compoundedinterest rate;(P3 ) Equivalent local variance: VQ ( yt 1 Ft ) VP ( yt 1 Ft ) ,where Ft is the information accumulated up to time t, and V(·) denotes the variance. Duan [3]offered a sound economic interpretation of these requirements, and showed that they ruled out thelocal arbitrage opportunities within the GARCH models. In fact, (P1 ) is a compatibility conditionthat preserves unlikely events to remain unlikely in both probability measures. (P2 ) ensures thatforward contracts—the simplest derivative contracts—are correctly priced so that no arbitrageopportunity exists in the risk-neutral measure Q, consistent with standard financial econometric theory.(P3 ) maintains the conditional risk level so that no additional risk is generated or reduced from issuinga derivative.Inspired by the Girsanov theorem on Itô’s processes, we consider the change of measure bylinearly shifting the drift term in the asset return process (1) so that it guarantees (P1 ) and does notaffect the Bayesian inference for SV models. The (P2 ) of LRNVR implies that the drift term contains theinterest rate r under Q. Combining these two considerations, we haveytht r βσt Φ(σt2 ) σt ε t , µ φ(ht 1 µ) τηt ,where r is the one-period continuously compounded risk-free interest rate, β is a constant, and Φ(σ2 )is the compensator function enforcing (P2 ) to hold. In addition, (P3 ) is satisfied, as the conditionalvariance is evaluated as σ2 after the mean shift.To illustrate our idea, we consider the Gaussian innovations for both return and conditionalvolatility processes. Set Φ σt2 /2. The unconditional distribution of ht remains Gaussian. Under P,σt2 σt ε t ,2ht µ φ(ht 1 µ) τηt ,yt r βσt (3)and a pair of Q-processes (ε t , ηt ) satisfying the LRNVR can then be identified. Specifically, ε t ε t βand ηt ηt . Clearly, P and Q are equivalent. The SV model under Q is deduced asσt2 σt ε t ,2h t µ φ(h t 1 µ) τηt .y t r (4)(5)It is easy to verify thath 1 2i EQ [St 1 Ft ] EQ [ St eyt 1 Ft ] St er EQ e 2 σt σt ε t Ft St er ;VQ [yt 1 Ft ] σt2 VP [yt 1 Ft ] .The following theorem presents a more general result.Theorem 1. Consider the SV model in (1)–(2). Let ε t ε t β and ηt ηt for any fixed constant β. If there exists an equivalent measure Q under which EQ [ε t ] EQ [ηt ] 0 and M (s) EQ [esε t ] for alls 0, t N is the moment generating function (MGF) of ε t , then the SV model under P:yt r βσt ln M (σt ) σt ε t ,ht µ φ(ht 1 µ) τηt ,(6)
Risks 2016, 4, 515 of 12admits an SV model under Q satisfying the LRNVR:y t r ln M(σt ) σt ε t ,(7)h t µ φ(h t 1 µ) τηt .Proof of Theorem 1. As the theorem assumes that there is an equivalent probability measure Q,we only need to prove for the second and third conditions of LRNVR. Using the transformationε t ε t β and ηt ηt , the SV model in (6) becomesyt r ln M (σt ) σt ε t ,ht µ τβρ φ(ht 1 µ) τηt .As ht Ft 1 , it is easy to check thatEQ [St 1 Ft ] EQ [ St eyt 1 Ft ] St erhi EQ eσt ε t FtM (σt ) St er ;(8)VQ [yt 1 Ft ] σt2 VP [yt 1 Ft ] .The SV model in (6) has a plausible economic interpretation. A simple consideration may assumea constant drift term m so thatyt m σt ε t .When a constant expected geometric return is assumed, it violates the economic belief on thereturn–risk trade off. In terms of the number of model parameters, both the constant drift SV modeland that in (6) contain five basic parameters, and other parameters associated with the distributionsof ε t and ηt . Without increasing the number of parameters, the SV model shows that the higher thevolatility, the higher the expected geometric return for a positive β. In fact, the β can be viewed as theSharpe ratio: the excess return over volatility. Thus, our model can be interpreted as a constant Sharperatio model in a financial econometrics. Badescu et al. [19] reported that the constant drift modelneeds a subtle Esscher transform to obtain the Q process under GARCH models, and the computationof option price could be less straightforward. We find that the constant drift SV model also admitsimplementation difficulties.For (6) to be well defined, we must ensure that there is an equivalent probability measure Q underwhich the Q moment-generating function of ε t is well defined. Although it is not necessarily truefor arbitrary distributions of ε t and ηt , many implementable SV models which are consistent withTheorem 1 can be developed via SMN distributions.2.2. The SV Model with VG and t Error DistributionsThe examples of SMN distributions include the Student-t, VG distributions, and many others.See [20]. Analyses of models with both Student-t innovations on returns and volatility processes havealready been conducted, making it a relatively mature field. However, we do not model ε t using a tdistribution, because Theorem 1 requires a finite MGF. To allow heavy-tailed distributions for assetreturn and its volatility, we consider a standard VG distribution with the shape parameter α for ε t ,and a standard Student-t distribution with ν degrees of freedom for ηt . Using the MGF of the VGdistribution, Theorem 1 brings us the following SV model under P. σ2yt r βσt α ln 1 t σt ε t ,2αht µ φ(ht 1 µ) τηt ,(9)(10)
Risks 2016, 4, 516 of 12where M (σt ) σ21 t2α α.The probability density function (PDF) of the VG distribution and its moments are given inAppendix A.2.3. Bayesian FrameworkBayesian inference combines expert opinions with observational evidence, supplementingclassical statistical inference or the frequentist approach once the likelihood is not trivial to obtain,and is performed via the joint posterior distribution of all model parameters. In this context, unlike theGARCH models, the SV models contain an additional random process in the volatility equation,resulting in an additional latent variable for each observation and an intractable likelihood functionwhich involves very high dimensional integrals. Suppose that N asset returns, y R N , are collectedfor statistical analysis. Then, there are N 1 latent volatility variables, h (h0 , h1 , ., h N ), in the model.Let θ (µ, φ, τ 2 , α, ν, β) be the vector of parameters of the VG-t SV model. The likelihood function isan analytically intractable N-dimensional integral of the form:L (θ) ZΠtN 1 f (yt h1 , ., h N ) f (h0 , ., h N θ) dh0 .dh N .The parameters spaces of θ and h together can be viewed as an augmented parameter space.In the Bayesian paradigm, a full Bayesian approach for performing Bayesian inference is via thesimulation-based MCMC algorithms, which iteratively sample posterior realisations from the jointposterior distributionf (θ, h y) f (y θ, h) f (h θ) f (θ) ,where f (θ) is the PDF of the joint prior distributions of θ.Since the VG and Student-t distributions belong to the class of SMN distributions, we can facilitatean efficient MCMC algorithm for Bayesian inference using a data augmentation technique. Choy andChan [20] demonstrated Bayesian inference using univariate SMN distributions, including the VGand Student-t distributions. Therefore, our VG-t SV model under the P measure can be expressedhierarchically as yt ht , µ, φ, τ 2 , λyt N Q, λyt σt , 1 2ht ht 1 , yt , µ, φ, τ 2 , λht N µ φ(ht 1 µ), λ τ,ht τ2h0 µ, φ, τ 2 , λh0 N µ,,λ h0 (1 φ 2 ) α α ,,t 1, 2, .T,λyt α Ga ν2 ν2 λht ν Ga,,t 0, 1, .T,2 2(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)where Ga(c, d) is the gamma distribution with mean c/d. See [20] for Bayesian implementation of SMNdistributions and [13] for the SV models. In this setup, λht and λyt are scale mixture variables whichcan be used as a global diagnostic of potential outliers ([20]) in the return and volatility equations,respectively. The shape parameters ν and α capture the heavy-tailed features of the innovations inthe return and volatility processes. This representation of the VG-t SV model enables a simple Gibbssampler for posterior inference, because the full conditional distributions of the log-volatilities and thescale mixture variables will be the univariate Gaussian and gamma distributions.To complete the Bayesian framework, we adopt the following prior distributions for modelparameters
Bayesian Option Pricing Framework with Stochastic Volatility for FX Data Ying Wang 1, Sai Tsang Boris Choy 2,* and Hoi Ying Wong 1 1 Department of Statistics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; rachelwang415@gmail.com (Y.W.); hywong@sta.cuhk.edu.hk (H.Y.W.) 2 Discipline of Business Analytics, The University of Sydney, NSW .
4355 Peavey Road Chaska, MN 55318 Phone: 952.448.6539 Fax: 952.448.7950 Call For Pricing Call For Pricing Call For Pricing Call For Pricing Call For Pricing Call For Pricing Call For Pricing Call For Pricing Call For Pricing. Sales Service Rentals Southwest Rental & Sales :: Equipment :: ELECTRIC TOOLS
form nonlinear stochastic option pricing model. Leaving the realm of option pricing for stock and stock indices, GK [1] extended the BS model to price options on foreign currencies. For over a quarter of a century, the GK option-pricing model has been the standard foreign currency option-pricing model in pricing European style options and the .
Pricing The categories for pricing air freight are ULD Pricing Tariff Pricing Contract Pricing Spot Bid Pricing Air freight pricing is very fluid and is quickly affected by capacity and market conditions. ULD pricing is based on the type of ULD. Each device w
The airline industry is developing new mechanisms for pricing and revenue management to improve an airline's capabilities for dynamic pricing. ATPCO has worked with the industry to identify and define three dynamic pricing mechanisms: Optimized Pricing, Adjusted Pricing, and Continuous Pricing. The agreed-
Computational Bayesian Statistics An Introduction M. Antónia Amaral Turkman Carlos Daniel Paulino Peter Müller. Contents Preface to the English Version viii Preface ix 1 Bayesian Inference 1 1.1 The Classical Paradigm 2 1.2 The Bayesian Paradigm 5 1.3 Bayesian Inference 8 1.3.1 Parametric Inference 8
value of the parameter remains uncertain given a nite number of observations, and Bayesian statistics uses the posterior distribution to express this uncertainty. A nonparametric Bayesian model is a Bayesian model whose parameter space has in nite dimension. To de ne a nonparametric Bayesian model, we have
Morgan Corporation Parts - Access our online catalog by Visiting our website @ Morgancorp.com. Phone: 877-703-9415. Speed Dial Options. Georgia- Option 2 then Option 1 for Parts . Florida- Option 3 then Option 1 for Parts Pennsylvania- Option 4 then Option 1 for Parts . Wisconsin- Option 5 then Option 1 for Parts . Colorado- Option 6 the Option .
the American Board of Radiology (ABR) Core and Certifying examinations administered between January 1 – December 31, 2018. The guide has undergone a few minor changes compared to the 2018 version, which was significantly revised com- pared to earlier versions, reflecting changes in NIS content on the examinations. The primary change in this study guide is the addition of Core Concepts of .
