The Impact Of Leadership Behaviour And Organisational .
Journal of Business and Retail Management Research (JBRMR) Vol. 7 Issue 2April 2013The impact of leadership behaviour and organisational culture on jobsatisfaction and its relationship among organisational commitmentand turnover intentions.A case study on an Egyptian companyTawfik El-Nahas, Eman Mohamed Abd-El-Salam and Ayman Yehia ShawkyArab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime TransportCollege of Management and Technology, Alexandria, EgyptKeywords:Leadership behaviour, Organisational culture, Job satisfaction, Organisational commitment,Employee turnover intentions, Egypt.AbstractThe purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship among leadership behaviour, organisationalculture, job satisfaction, organisational commitment and turnover intentions through a case analysis onone of the biggest Egyptian company. A structured questionnaire was developed. The hypotheses weresimultaneously tested on a sample of 455 employees out of 700 distributed, giving a response rate of 65 percent. Several analytical techniques were used to assess the relationships among the variables underinvestigation such as Pearson correlation, chi-square, and multiple linear regressions.The findings of this study have shown significant relationships among the variables underinvestigation. It is imperative to better understand how one of the biggest Egyptian companies caneffectively and efficiently manage a skilled workforce within the Egyptian context. The research waslimited to one of the biggest Egyptian companies in Egypt. Also the use of cross-sectional design restrictsinferences being drawn regarding casualty. Despite the significant academic interest in leadershipbehaviour and organisational culture, this study contributes in adding to the body of the Egyptian cultureknowledge. Also, to the best of the authors’ knowledge there is no study published that explores theinfluence of leadership behaviour and organisational culture on staff job satisfaction, commitment andturnover intention within the Egyptian context.IntroductionThe phenomenal acceleration of changes in the nature of the Egyptian environment overthe last 20 years has created unparalleled competence for change, challenge and innovation formore effective marketing management of the organisations’ products and services on offer(Owusu-Frimpong, 1999). In the past, changes in the environment were much more localisedand slower, which offered management the chance to react slowly, and try different tactics andstrategies before introducing any real change. However, this is not possible nowadays, asglobalisation, and turbulent changes in the business environment require organisations to reactcorrectly and quickly from the outset (Sohi, 1996; Prager, 2003). Providing a successful productsand services depends not only on customer contact-employees' performance and satisfaction,but also on the close coordination between departments. Customer satisfaction lies at the heartof all the endeavours of all organisations (if it does not, then it should) as the performance,attitudes and behaviours of employees can influence customers' perceptions towardorganisation.A Journal of the Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM)1
Journal of Business and Retail Management Research (JBRMR) Vol. 7 Issue 2April 2013Despite the extensive significant academic interest works in leadership behaviour styleand organisational culture and their relationship with employees’ job satisfaction (Lund, 2003;Yiing and Ahmad, 2009); there is still a scarcity of research investigating them in the Arabcountries especially in Egypt. Thus, the researchers were motivated to close this gap by initiatinga paper that aims to explore and describe the impact of leadership behaviour style andorganisational culture on employee job Satisfaction, and the relationship between employee jobsatisfaction, organisational commitment and turnover intentions. In examining these links, thisstudy intends to contribute empirical evidence and extend extant theory pertaining to thebarriers of employee retention. Furthermore, the results of this paper will provide insights intothe process of organisational development. The paper begins with an overview of existingperspectives on the styles of leadership behaviour, organisational culture types, job satisfaction,organisational commitment and turnover intentions. Thereafter, research into the relationshipsbetween these constructs is examined and appraised. Following a discussion of the researchmethodology adapted, the findings of the survey are presented. The paper concludes with adiscussion of the implications for theory and practice, highlighting the importance of thisavenue of research.Leadership behaviour style as a crucial factor for organisational success and jobsatisfactionThe concept of leadership dates back 5000 years to Egyptian hieroglyphics in which thewords (seshemu) “leader” and (seshement) “leadership” are used (Bass, 1990; Sancar, 2009).There is a wide spectrum of definitions of leadership. Yukl (2001: 2) stated that "researchersusually define leadership according to their individual perspectives and the aspects of the phenomenon ofmost interest to them". Moreover, Stogdill (1974: 259) stated that "there are almost as many definitionsof leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept". Furthermore, Karmel(1978: 476) stated that "it is consequently very difficult to settle on a single definition of leadership thatis general enough to accommodate these many meanings and specific enough to serve as anoperationalisation of the variable". The researchers define leadership as the process of influencingthe activities of an organised group toward goal achievement.As a result of leadership studies in the mid 1950s, at the Ohio State University, Fleishman(1957) identified two major components of leader’s behaviour: initiating structure andconsideration. Consideration means that the leader is being friendly, supportive, concerned,open and consultative to his employees. Therefore, the higher the level of consideration in theleader, the higher the perception that the goal is achievable and consequently, that the reward isattainable. On the other hand, initiating structure occurs when the leader defines the role’sstructures that the employees would follow toward attainment of the formal goals,consequently, employees see their reward or punishment in advance as a direct result of theirperformance and behaviour in their attempts to achieve those goals. Therefore, the higher thelevel of initiating structure in the leader, the more likely that the employees will be informedwhich paths they should follow and what the rewards are for following those paths. Leaderswho are high in both initiating structure and consideration will supply positive rewards to thosewho follow high performance paths and negative rewards to those who follow low performancepaths (Evans, 1970: 282-283). The leaders can provide support for goal setting and remove anybarriers in order to achieve the goal. House (1971: 324) stated that "the motivation function of theleader consists of increasing personal payoff to subordinates for work-goal attainment and making the pathA Journal of the Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM)2
Journal of Business and Retail Management Research (JBRMR) Vol. 7 Issue 2April 2013to these payoffs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing theopportunities for personal satisfaction en route". House (1971) examined the leadership dimensionsof initiating structure and consideration and their impact on satisfaction, role ambiguity, taskautonomy, and job scope by using employees from various industries. Role ambiguity, taskautonomy, and job scope were used as measures of path-goal instrumentality or the linkbetween goal achievement and reward. House found significant support for the path-goaltheory of leader effectiveness, and concluded that the leader could positively influenceemployee behaviour by providing support, guidance, and structure based on the leader'sunderstanding of the needs and abilities of the employees and on the situation they are facing;thus leading to an increase in the satisfaction and effectiveness of both the employee and theleader.House and Mitchell (1974) proposed four leader behaviours: Supportive leadership,Directive leadership, Achievement-oriented leadership and Participative leadership. Supportiveleadership and Participative leadership were similar to the behaviour known as "consideration",while the Directive leadership and Achievement-oriented leadership styles were similar to thebehaviour known as "initiating structure". Participative leadership refers to the significantdegree of employee involvement in day-to-day, work related decisions; i.e., the degree to whichthe leader lets employees take on some of the responsibility for making decisions about whichtasks are to be achieved. Furthermore, effective leaders used group supervision instead ofsupervising employees separately. Employees participated in the group meetings for decisionmaking, improved communication, promoted cooperation, and facilitated conflict resolution.The role of the leader in group meetings should be primarily to lead the discussion and keep itsupportive. However, even though employees participated in the meetings, the leader did notgive up the responsibilities and remained responsible for all the decisions (Vakola andBouradas, 2005; Schyns et al., 2009; Yiing and Ahmad, 2009). Lok and Crawford (2004) andChang and Lee (2007) argued that leadership aimed to manage employee behaviour to achievejob satisfaction and organisational commitment, thus, we hypothesize that:H1: Directive leadership behaviour will be negatively correlated to employee job satisfaction.H2: participative leadership behaviour will be positively correlated to employee job satisfaction.H3: supportive leadership behaviour will be positively correlated to employee job satisfaction.Organisational culture typesThe 1980s witnessed a surge in examining the concept of organisational culture asorganisations’ awareness increase regarding the effect of organisational culture on employees’job satisfaction. However, few studies have investigated organisational culture and its impact onjob satisfaction (Deshpande and Webster, 1989; Lund, 2003). Researchers have definedorganisational culture as a set of expected behaviours that are generally supported within agroup (Schwartz and Davis, 1981). Definitions of culture are found in six interlockingdimensions: organisational history; values and beliefs; myths and stories explaining theorganisation; cultural norms; traditions; rituals and ceremonies; and heroes and heroines(Ownes and Steinhoff, 1989). Kim et al. (2005) argued that employees perceive greater valuecongruence with an organisational culture when “a common message” is communicated aboutthe values of the organisation. Kilmann et al. (1985: 5) defined organisational culture as “theshared philosophies, ideologies, values, assumptions, beliefs, expectations, attitudes and norms”that join an organisation together. Deal (1986: 301) defined organisational culture as “the humanA Journal of the Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM)3
Journal of Business and Retail Management Research (JBRMR) Vol. 7 Issue 2April 2013invention that creates solidarity and meaning and inspires commitment and productivity”.Lund (2003) stated that organisational culture is a system of shared values and beliefs thatinteract with the employees and the structure of the organisation to produce behavioural norms.In the present study organisational culture is defined as Deshpande and Webster (1984: 4) “thepattern of shared values and beliefs that help individuals understand organisational functioningand thus provide them with norms for behaviour in the organisation”. It is more difficult toargue that one definition of culture is superior to another; however, Schein (1985 a: 6, 1985 b: 6,1983: 3, 1984, 1986: 30, 1990: 111), conceptualisation of this concept is sufficient. He definesculture as follows:"For any given group or organisation that has a substantial history, organisational culture is (a) Apattern of basic assumptions, (b) invented, discovered, or developed by a given group, (c) as it learns tocope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, (d) that has worked well enough tobe considered valid and, therefore, (e) is to be taught to new members as the (f) correct way to perceive,think, and feel in relation to those problems".Organisational culture can be assessed along many dimensions, resulting in conceptuallydifferent, but fundamentally similar (Yiing and Ahmad, 2009). For instance, Wallach (1983)developed three types of organisational cultures (innovative, supportive and bureaucratic).Wallach (1983: 32-33), defined the above three cultures types and developed an index for theirmeasurement. He defined them as follows: a bureaucratic organisational culture is one in whichthere are hierarchical, procedural and structural components. In other words, there are clearlines of responsibility and authority. The work is organized and systematic; these cultures areusually based on control and power. The companies are stable, careful, and usually mature. Ahigh score on bureaucracy means the organisation is power-oriented, cautious, established, soldregulated, ordered, structured, procedural and hierarchical; an innovative organisational cultureis one, which is creative, results oriented, and has a challenging work environment. In otherwords, innovative cultures are exciting and dynamics. Entrepreneurial and ambitious peoplethrive in these environments. They are creative places to work, filled with challenge and risk.The stimulation is often constant----------innovative environments, however, are not easy placesin which to work, burn-out and stress are routine occupational hazards---------and; supportiveorganisational culture is one that exhibits teamwork, and a friendly, people oriented,encouraging, trusting work environment. In other words, supportive cultures are warm; “fuzzy”places to work. People are friendly, fair, and helpful to each other. They are open, harmoniousenvironments almost like an extended family. They trust, safe, equitable, sociable, encouraging,relationship-oriented and collaborative. Various studies in various industries and countriesshowed that innovative and supportive cultures had strong positive effects on commitment andjob satisfaction, while bureaucratic cultures had a negative impact (Wallach, 1983), Thus, wehypothesize thatH4: Bureaucratic organisational culture will be negatively correlated to employee job satisfaction.H5: supportive organisational culture will be positively correlated to employee job satisfaction.H6: Innovative organisational culture will be positively correlated to employee job satisfaction.Furthermore, the competing values framework was developed by Deshpande' et al. (1993),Moorman (1995) and Cameron and Quinn (1999) for organisational analysis, focusing onorganisational effectiveness. It is built along two dimensions emphasising competing values: (a)A Journal of the Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM)4
Journal of Business and Retail Management Research (JBRMR) Vol. 7 Issue 2April 2013focus (external versus internal) and (b) structure (control versus flexibility), as illustrated infigure (3.2). When applied to organisational culture, these two dimensions yielded a matrix withfour quadrants, each representing a different type of culture; (1) clan (Consensual), (2)adhocracy (Developmental), (3) hierarchy (Hierarchical), and (4) market (Rational) (Quinn andMc Grath, 1985; Quinn, 1988; Cameron and Freeman, 1991; Cameron and Quinn, 1999).The vertical dimension of the framework differentiates effectiveness criteria thatemphasise flexibility, discretion, and dynamism from criteria that emphasise stability, order,and control. Microsoft is an example of organisations that are viewed as organic, and capable ofchanging. On the other hand, government agencies are examples of more stable, predictable,and mechanistic organisations. The horizontal dimension differentiates effectiveness criteria thatemphasise an internal orientation, integration and unity from criteria that emphasise an externalorientation, differentiation, and rivalry. IBM is recognised by their internal consistency; on theother hand, Toyota is focused on interacting or competing with the others outside theirboundaries.Consequently, the clan culture emphasised employee commitment, loyalty,empowerment, openness, morale, participation in decision making, teamwork, personalinvolvement and cohesiveness, putting emphasis on flexibility, internal focus, and thedevelopment of human resources. It represents a friendly place to work. Clan cultures arerelated to increased levels of trust, while they limit conflict and resistance to change.It is dramatically opposed to market culture, which focuses on goal achievement, control,task accomplishment, profitability planning, goal setting, productivity with an externalorientation and setting objectives and efficiency. The adhocracy culture emphasisedentrepreneurship, creativity, and innovativeness in discovering new markets and directions forgrowth. It is characterised by flexibility, adaptability, and resource acquisition, with an externalfocus. It stands in contrast to the hierarchy culture, which stresses stability, order, uniformity,certainty, control, rules and regulations, documentation and record keeping, job descriptions,hierarchical authority, definitions of responsibilities, centralisation of decision making,monitoring, standardisation of procedures, measurement, dependability and reliability, whichare values that are deeply supported in hierarchy cultures. In hierarchy cultures, coordinationand problem-solving is assigned to higher levels of hierarchy. Employees may not be able torecognise problems as they come up due to their limited understanding of the overall process.A Journal of the Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM)5
Journal of Business and Retail Management Research (JBRMR) Vol. 7 Issue 2April 2013Even when employees recognise the problem, they do not have the authority to resolve themwithout the approval of the upper management. Hierarchy cultures are in close alignment withstable environments (Cameron and Quinn, 1999). As supported by Cameron and Freeman(1991), Quinn et al. (1991) and Deshpande et al. (1993), each culture represents a different set ofbasic assumptions, orientations, and values, which constitute organisational culture. There is nopreferred type as combinations can vary in each organisation and under different conditions andsituations (Yiing and Ahmad, 2009).Quinn et al. (1991) study indicated a strong positive relationship between adhocracy andclan culture and employee satisfaction. Goodman (2001) examined the relationship betweenorganisational culture and quality of work life in seven hospitals; findings indicate that clancultures are positively related to organisational commitment, job involvement, empowerment,and job satisfaction and are negatively related to intention to leave the organisation. Hierarchicalcultures are negatively related to organisational commitment, job involvement, empowerment,and job satisfaction and are positively related to intention to leave the organisation. Lund (2003)examines the impact of organisational culture types on job satisfaction. The results indicate thatjob satisfaction levels varied across corporate cultural typology. Both clan culture and adhocracyculture elicited significantly higher levels of employee job satisfaction than market culture andhierarchy culture. It is, however, emphasised that while overall job satisfaction in clan andadhocracy organisational culture types is higher than overall job
behaviour and organisational culture, this study contributes in adding to the body of the Egyptian culture knowledge. Also, to the best of the authors’ knowledge there is no study published that explores the influence of leadership behaviour and organisational culture on staff job satisfaction, commitment and
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