Volume 2, No. 1 - Regent University
Volume 2, No. 1The Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership (JBPL) is a refereed scholarly journal thataims to provide a forum for international research and exploration of leadership studies focusedon the Hebrew and Christian scriptures. Representing the multidisciplinary fields of biblical,social-science, historical, and leadership studies, the JBPL publishes qualitative researchpapers that explore, engage, and extend the field of knowledge and understanding of thephenomenon of leadership as found within the contexts of the Hebrew and Christian scriptures.To stimulate scholarly debate and a free flow of ideas, the Journal of Biblical Perspectives inLeadership is published in electronic format and provides access to all issues free of charge.Editorial StaffDr. Corné BekkerEditorRegent UniversityMrs. Ashleigh SlaterManaging and Production EditorRegent UniversityMembersDr. Andrew D. ClarkeUniversity of AberdeenScotland, UKDr. Jacob W. EliasDr. Kenneth O. GangelAssociated Mennonite BiblicalDallas SeminarySeminaryTexas, USAIndiana, USADr. David J. GyertsonRegent UniversityVirginia, USADr. Charles de JonghMalyon CollegeBrisbane, AustraliaDr. Gary KenneyEastern Washington UniversityWashington, USADr. Celia E. T. KourieUniversity of South AfricaGauteng, South AfricaDr. John (Jack) W. NiewoldLiving Hope Christian CenterOregon, USADr. Randall J. PannellRegent UniversityVirginia, USAMrs. Julia MatteraCommunications SpecialistRegent UniversityMr. Billy MimsWebsite ProductionRegent UniversityDr. Bruce E. WinstonRegent UniversityVirginia, USAProduction StaffDr. Doris GomezWebsite DesignRegent UniversityMrs. Sarah StanfieldWebsite ProductionRegent UniversityJournal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 2, no. 1 (Winter 2008), 1. 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent UniversityISSN 1941-4692
FROM THE EDITORGreetings,Welcome to the Winter 2008 edition of the Journal of Biblical Perspectives inLeadership. This edition of JBPL continues to build the base of scholarly perspectivesand research on the phenomena of leadership in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures. Itis our hope that the articles in this edition will serve to further extend the base forrigorous and well-grounded exegetical research in leadership.I want to thank the members of our international editorial board for their continuedguidance and hard work. I also want to thank the dean and faculty of the School ofGlobal Leadership & Entrepreneurship at Regent University for their continued interestsand support of the journal.We welcome any comments, suggestions, and correspondence from our readers. I lookforward with great anticipation to our continued interaction.Peace and all good,SCorné J. Bekker, D. Litt. et Phil.EditorRegent UniversityJournal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 2, no. 1 (Winter 2008), 2. 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent UniversityISSN 1941-4692
CHRISTOLOGICAL HYMN:THE LEADERSHIP PARADOX OF PHILIPPIANS 2:5-11DAVID R. GRAYA paradox occurs when a situation or condition challenges popular beliefs or conventions.Philippians 2:5-11 provides an example of a paradox relative to the traditional beliefs ofleadership. A cross-disciplinary approach that integrates current social definitions and theoriesof leadership demonstrates that the Pauline model of leadership as propagated in Paul’s lettersto the Philippians is a valid model for leadership study and application. Utilization of theprinciples of sacred textual analysis relative to socio-rhetorical criticism addresses application oforganizational behavioral theories and extant leadership theories to Philippians 2:5-11.A paradox is a situation or condition that typically arises when conditionschallenge popular beliefs or conventions. Philippians 2:5-11 provides an example of aparadox relative to the traditional beliefs of leadership, such as the great man theory ortrait theory. Generally, the traditional view of a leader is an individual with power, whohas substantial control over others. 1 Early leadership models and theories, prior to the1970s, concentrated on the behavioral styles associated with great leaders. 2 Forexample, writers routinely use the characteristics of confident, iron-willed, determined,12Gary Yukl, Leadership in Organizations (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2002), 142.Stephen Robbins, Organizational Behavior (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998), 349.Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 2, no. 1 (Winter 2008), 3-18. 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent UniversityISSN 1941-4692
Gray/JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP4and decisive to describe Margaret Thatcher, the former prime minister of Great Britainand an acknowledged leader. 3 In addition to the traits of determined and decisive,enthusiasm is another acknowledged leader trait. In some organizational cultures, beingovertly expressive in both verbal and non-verbal body language demonstratesleadership ability. In such cultures, a quiet person with less expressive body language isunqualified to lead. For those subscribing to the traits of leadership associated withMargaret Thatcher, or expressiveness, a quiet unassuming individual in a leadershipposition may appear as a paradox.Few would probably question the leadership abilities of individuals such asMargaret Thatcher, Ronald Reagan, Sir Winston Churchill, or Theodore Roosevelt. Yetmany might question the leadership ability of a mild-mannered waiter, performingmenial tasks of servitude. Certainly, many would question a modern day businessleader, possessing the power and ability to orchestrate events, folding when faced withstiff competition. However, if the reader agrees with the two latter cases, then the readerwould have to question the leadership ability of Jesus Christ. In fact, certain portions ofscripture, such as Philippians 2:5-11, when interpreted through the lens of traditionalleadership theory, challenge the image of Christ as a role model for leadership. Inessence, Philippians 2:5-11 is paradoxical to the traditional view of how to effectivelyrole model leadership behavior.The purpose of this paper is to apply a cross-disciplinary approach thatintegrates current social definitions and theories of leadership and to demonstrate thatthe Pauline model of leadership as propagated in Paul’s letters to the Philippians is avalid model for leadership study and application. Utilization of the principles of sacredtextual analysis relative to socio-rhetorical criticism addresses the following points:1. Scriptural analysis of Philippians 2:5-112. Historical analysis of Philippians 2:5-113. Application of organizational behavioral theories4. Application of extant leadership theoriesThe purpose of using both a scriptural and historical lens in textual analysis,through socio-rhetorical analysis, conforms to Robbins’ notion that socio-rhetoricalcriticism should explore a text in a broad, yet systematic manner that provides ameaningful platform of interpretation and dialogue. 4 Further, socio-rhetorical criticismfocuses on the values and beliefs in the text as well as the world in which we live. 5However, the world in which we live relative to our values and beliefs is not the sameworld of the Apostle Paul. In Philippians, Paul’s writings may speak to present dayvalues and beliefs that are not necessarily apropos to Paul’s time. For example, inpresent times the word rhetoric encompasses connotations of falsehood ormanipulation, while in Paul’s time readers would have understood the term rhetoric to3Ibid., 347.Vernon Robbins, Exploring the Texture of Texts: A Guide to Socio-Rhetorical Interpretation (Harrisburg,PA: Trinity Press International, 1996), 132.5Ibid., 1.4Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 2, no. 1 (Winter 2008), 3-18. 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent UniversityISSN 1941-4692
Gray/JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP5mainly deal with craft of reasoned persuasion typified by the writings of philosopherssuch as Aristotle. 6 Ergo, to appreciate a scriptural analysis of Philippians 2:5–11 and itsapplication to modern leadership and organizational theories, it is necessary to view thetext in a historical context in order to understand the social factors that influenced bothPaul and his audience.I. SCRIPTURAL ANALYSISMost biblical scholars agree that Apostle Paul authored Philippians, a letterwritten to the congregation of the church he had founded in Philippi, the first Paulinechurch of Europe. 7 Philippians is a thank-you letter to the parishioners, who had madeconsiderable sacrifices to establish and maintain the church in Philippi, to bolster thePhilippi congregation’s faith and their continued commitment to spread of the Gospel. 8Paul’s letters to the Philippians illustrate the effective use of rhetoric, through awell-crafted letter, to promote a persuasive argument. Aristotle and other philosophersof antiquity were well aware of how the persuasive effect of communication dependedon a careful arrangement. 9 Typical of such oration or argument were the use of theexordium, narratio, propositio, probatio, and peroration. 10 Philippians 2:1–3:21represent the probatio portion of Paul’s letters, with 2:1-11 being the centerpiece ofPaul’s communication. 11 Philippians 2:6-11, the Carmen Christi, is a poetic recitation ofthe story of Christ, and serves as a compelling example of how the Philippians shouldseek to serve each other as well as others outside the church.12 Although Paul was notthe author of the Carmen Christi or Christological Hymn, it was likely a byproduct ofPaul’s ministry, and used by Paul to make an emotional appeal to members of thechurch at Philippi. 13 Thompson posits that Paul recognized the complexity ofcommunicative processes through written communication as evident in his use ofemotion (pathos) and cognitive (logos) appeals in 2:6-11. 14 Paul’s letters to the churchof Philippi, through rhetorical effect, sought to promote a compelling vision that wouldoffer the congregation a model of conduct. 156Joseph Marchal, “Expecting a Hymn, Encouraging An Argument: Introducing the Rhetoric of Philippiansand Pauline Interpretation,” Interpretation 61, no. 3 (2007): 245-255.7Jay Gary, “Self-Sacrificial Leadership and Islam,” JayGary.com, ; Daniel Wallace, “Philippians: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” Bible.org.8Wallace, Philippians; Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford, UK: Oxford UniversityPress), 216; James Thompson, “Preaching to Philippians,” Interpretation 61, no. 3 (2007): 298-309.9Thompson, “Preaching to Philippians,” 303.10Ibid.11Ibid., 305.12Ibid.; Ronald Allen, “Between Text & Sermon: Philippians 2:1-11,” Interpretation 61, no. 1 (2007): 7274.13Murphy-O’Connor, Paul, 226.14Thompson, “Preaching to Philippians,” 302.15Ibid., 306.Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 2, no. 1 (Winter 2008), 3-18. 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent UniversityISSN 1941-4692
Gray/JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP6In reading Philippians 2:6–11, it is crucial to remember that the hymn is part of aletter, in a series of letters that Paul wrote, which were intended to be read by an oratorto the Philippi congregation. Scriptural text, such as Paul’s letters, is an intricatetapestry of complex patterns and images, and concentrating on a single image orpattern may limit or distort the meaning of the narrative. 16 Paul’s letters provide prayer(1:3-11), examples (2:19-30), the hymn (2:6-11), autobiography (1:12-26; 3:2-21), andexhortation or paraenesis (1:27-30, 2:12-18, 4:2-9) to establish a vision and guide forthe congregation’s behavior. 17Philippians 2:1-30 forms three distinct units (a) 1-11, (b) 12-18, and (c) 19-30,with verses 2:1-11 containing two narratological units (a) verses 1 to 4, and (b) verses 5to 11. 18 Bekker posits that the rhetorical structure of Philippians 1:1-30 serves as theprobatio, with three exemplum or role models presented to support Paul’s argumentwith the first exempla being Christ in verses 5-11. 19In Philippians 2:5, Paul encourages his audience to “have this mind amongyourselves, which you have in Christ Jesus,” following 2:4, where Paul explains thatChristians should look to the interest of others, as one would seek to attend to one’sown self-interest. Thompson posits that Paul’s use of phronein or mind goes beyondsimple cognition and promotes inner reflection to go beyond agreement to a level ofshared mental models that promotes group loyalty or cohesiveness. 20 Paul’s appeal tothe Philippians early on to be like-minded has important implications. According tosocial cognitive theory, signs of status and power enhance the cueing function ofmodeled conduct. 21 The congregation of the Philippi church included members from alllevels of society. If the upper class members of the church behaved in the manner thatPaul desired, then the members of the church from the lower levels of the social stratawould be also likely to model the desired behavior. Further, Paul’s letters to the Philippiparishioners serves to stimulate the perspective-taking form of cognitive self-arousal.The perspective-taking form of cognitive self-arousal involves an individual experiencingthe emotional state of others by adapting the perspective of others. 22 In Philippians 2:511, Paul proposes downward mobility for the more affluent members of thecongregation and encourages communal or shared accountability. 23 It makes sense ifthe parishioners are motivated to be of like mind, by sharing the same perspectives of16Robbins, Exploring the Texture, 2.Thompson, “Preaching to Philippians,” 308.18Corne Bekker, “The Philippians Hymn (2:5-11) as an Early Mimetic Christological Model of ChristianLeadership in Roman Philippi,” (paper, Servant Leadership Roundtable, Regent University, August2006), ence proceedings/servant leadership roundtable/2006/pdf/bekker.pdf19Ibid.20Thompson, “Preaching to Philippians,” 301.21Albert Bandura, Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory (EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986). 207.22Ibid., 313.23Katherine Grieb, “The One Who Called You: Vocation and Leadership in Pauline Literature,”Interpretation 61, no. 1 (2007): 154-164.17Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 2, no. 1 (Winter 2008), 3-18. 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent UniversityISSN 1941-4692
Gray/JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP7Christ, as well as Paul, they are more likely to develop a greater degree ofcohesiveness due to shared emotions and mental models.In verses 2:6-8, Paul presents Christ as a role model for others to imitate, andreinforces his argument by illustrating two extreme measures that Christ took to humblehimself. First, in verses 6–7, Paul reminds his audience that Jesus, “though he was inthe form of God, did not count equality with God as a thing to be grasped, but emptiedhimself, taking the form of a servant being born in the likeness of God.” A verycompelling image given that Jesus was in the form of God, being from God, while menlike the Roman emperors were only created in a physical likeness of God. Who otherthan Jesus would be better qualified to assume the mantle, title, office, or benefits of thethrone to which every knee will bow. In stark contrast to the picture that Paul paints, isthe reported behavior of the leadership of the Pauline church in Corinth. It was duringthis time that Paul learned of the church leadership in Corinth taking advantage of theirposition to improve their living standards and prestige. 24 Further, both Greek andRoman societies promoted competition among society’s elite to compete for civichonors equivalent to those paid to the gods. 25 Clearly, Paul is emphasizing that whileentitled to the benefits of his birthright, Jesus willfully chose downward mobility, anaction that would capture the attention of a class-conscious society. The re-telling of thehymn, particularly verses 6 and 7, provides a graphic example of the commitment thatPaul believes that he and the followers of Christ must undertake. Unlike, servants orslaves living in involuntary conditions and lacking the freedom of choice, Jesus entersservitude by exercising his freedom of choice. 26 Therefore, it is incumbent upon theparishioners to follow Christ’s example since the absence of such behavior eliminatesthe possibility of incarnation or covenantal community. 27Paul’s second example of Jesus’ downward mobility, in verse 8, involves Jesuschoice to become “obedient unto death, even death on a cross.” In ancient cultures,obedience to the point of death in the service of one’s king or nation-state washonorable and acceptable. Ancient Greeks viewed Socrates choice of suicide withhemlock as a noble and brave gesture, unlike death on a cross, a form of executionreserved for criminals. In reminding the Philippians that Christ’s behavior modeled theway, Paul uses verses 5 to 8 to emphasize Christ’s act of “emptying” himself to achieve“exaltation” in verses 9 to 11. 28 While this work addresses only a portion of the tapestry,Philippians 2:6-11, the reader should extend these findings to a complete reading ofPaul’s letters.In general, Paul’s writings, which promote a Pauline model of leadership,challenge the reader with numerous paradoxes. For example, Paul’s concept of thechurch avoided hierarchical and large-scale bureaucracy in favor of a self-organizing24Grieb, “One Who Called You,” 159.Marchal, “Expecting a Hymn,” 248.26Ibid.27James Gilman, Fidelity of Heart: An Ethic of Christian Virtue (New York, NY: Oxford University Press,2001), 64.28Wallace, “Philippians.”25Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership 2, no. 1 (Winter 2008), 3-18. 2008 School of Global Leadership & Entrepreneurship, Regent UniversityISSN 1941-4692
Gray/JOURNAL OF BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVES IN LEADERSHIP8and adaptive congregation. 29 In today’s world of mega churches and global religiousorganizations, Paul’s model would likely appear unnatural as it may have appeared tothose in Paul’s time, who followed state religions such as practiced in Rome. Further inlight of the recent allegations of greed and avarice among noted televangelists, Paul’swords in 2:7 that Christ “emptied himself by taking on the form of a slave, by looking likeother men, and by sharing in human nature,” stands in stark contrast to the recentrevelations of greed and avarice among noted televangelists.The message of servitude, of humbling oneself, is a message that is consistentwith the writings found in other books of the New Testament. In both Matthew andPaul’s teachings, we learn through Christ that a relationship with God, as the Father, isnot for gaining an advantage (harpagmos) and that total submission, or self-emptying(kenosis), even to the extreme of death, results in exaltation and great reward. 30To present-day Christians, the message may seem simple enough tocomprehend and understand, at least from a scriptural perspective. Yet applying theprinciples in secular pursuits, such as climbing the corporate ladder, may seemincomprehensible to others. To appreciate fully the sociological context of Paul’smessage, one can look at Philippians 2:5-11 from a historical perspective, relative to thetime when Paul wrote his letter to the Philippians.II. HISTORICAL ANALYSISPaul wrote the letter to the Philippians while a prisoner of Rome, around 60 to 63C.E. 31 This means that Paul wrote to the Philippi congregation during the reign of theRoman Emperor Nero, who ruled Rome from 54 to 68 C.E. 32 During Paul’s lifetime, upto his imprisonment, he lived under the rule of a number of Roman emperors of theJulio-Flavians dynasty: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. 33, Both Pauland the Philippians would have
Scriptural analysis of Philippians 2:5-11 2. Historical analysis of Philippians 2:5-11 3. Application of organizational behavioral theories 4. Application of extant leadership theories The purpose of using both a scriptural and historical lens in textual analysis, through socio-rhetorical analysis, conforms to Robbins’ notion that socio .
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