Iii. SA N C T U A R Y Se T T I N G
III.SanctuarySettingThis section presents the concept of managingmarine resources for biodiversity conservation in the sanctuary. It describes the physicalsetting of the sanctuary including its geography, geology and oceanography, as well as itsconnectivity to other parts of the Gulf of Maine.It profiles the primary producers and decomposers essential to the sanctuary’s ecosystemfunction.25
Biodiversity ConservationThe environmental condition of the sanctuary is subject tomajor alterations that are largely due to the effects of humanactivities. Threats to resource states (e.g., water quality,ecological integrity, habitat complexity) fall into two general categories: those that involve exploitation of resourcesabove a certain level or threshold and those that destroyor degrade marine habitats and the associated biologicalcommunities. Exploitation includes both directed harvestand incidental taking of marine life. Threats to habitatinclude activities leading to physical alteration, varioussources of pollution, coastal development and introductionof alien species. Many of these threats are interrelated andhave cumulative impacts.The ability to accurately evaluate the scale and consequences of changes in the sanctuary’s resource states (andthe subsequent impacts on human society) is challenged byinadequate knowledge of historic baselines for comparisonwith conditions today. The basic diversity of marine life andthe patterns and processes that control the distribution andabundance of marine organisms in the sanctuary is still notwell understood. At the same time, exciting new technologies and conceptual advances permit us to implement novelresearch approaches that seek to reveal fuller understandingof the sanctuary’s ecological structure and the diversity andfunction of its biological communities.NOAA can and should play a powerful role in protectingthis special marine area, increasing public awareness andsupport for marine conservation, and providing sites forresearch and monitoring. By changing public attitudes,improving scientific understanding and developing effective models for management, the sanctuary can extend itsbenefit well beyond the limit of its geographic boundaries.Comprehending the great importance of marine biodiversity,and thereby gaining insights to interpret, explain and main-26tain ecological complexity, is the basis for marine resourcemanagement in the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary.Emphasis on Community Ecology andConservation BiologySanctuary management is predicated on the applicationof science to help formulate understanding of key issuesand problems and to infuse the related public dialoguewith substantive fact and thought. While many scientificdisciplines (e.g., geology, oceanography) are invoked inthe process, ultimately, ecology is paramount. While therehave arisen a variety of approaches to the study of ecology(e.g., physiological, evolutionary), three basic and classicalapproaches remain fundamental to the science and are prevalent in the articulation of public policy. These approachesare population ecology, community ecology and ecosystemecology (Ricklefs and Miller, 2000; Ricklefs, 2001).Population ecology emphasizes the uniquely biologicalproperties that are embodied in the dynamics of populations. A population consists of many organisms of the samespecies living together in the same place. Populations differfrom organisms in that they are potentially immortal, theirnumbers being maintained over time by the births anddeaths of new individuals that replace those that die. Populations also have properties such as geographic boundaries, densities and variations in size and age composition.Population ecology is essentially the study of the vital rates(births, deaths, recruitment) and biological processes thatmaintain numbers of animals in a species population.Population ecology is directly relevant to the managementof fisheries, forestry and agriculture where rates of removalby harvest need to be balanced against natural means andrates of replenishment.Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan and Environmental Assessment
Community ecology is concerned with understanding thediversity and relative abundances of different species livingtogether in the same place. An ecological community is thesum of many populations of different species living in thesame or similar habitats. The community approach focuseson interactions among multiple populations, which promoteand limit the coexistence of species. The focus of community studies is principally on how biotic interactions such aspredation and competition in relation to habitat influencethe numbers and distributions of organisms. These interactions include feeding relationships, which are responsible forthe movement of energy and materials through the ecosystem, providing a link between community and ecosystemapproaches. Community ecology has particular relevanceto the understanding of the nature of biological diversity andto the management of national marine sanctuaries.Ecosystem ecology describes the dynamics of energy transformations and material transfers among large assemblagesof organisms and the physical environment occupied bythose organisms. Ecosystems are large and complex systems,sometimes including many thousands of different kinds oforganisms living in a great variety of habitats. In the courseof their lives, organisms transform energy and process materials. To accomplish this, organisms must acquire energyand nutrients from their surroundings and rid themselvesof unwanted waste products. In doing so, they modify theconditions of the environment and the resources availablefor other organisms, and they contribute to energy fluxesand the cycling of elements. Ecosystem function resultsfrom the activities of organisms as well as from physical andchemical transformations in the seafloor, water column andatmosphere. Ecosystem understanding and approaches toboth fishery and sanctuary management are recognized asessential by NOAA.For purposes of implementing ecosystem-based resourcemanagement, the term “ecosystem” needs to be defined.A marine “ecosystem” is a human construct that artificiallydelineates a related portion of the ocean (Francis et al.,2007) over what can be a variable spatial scale (e.g., Stellwagen Bank sanctuary, Gulf of Maine). In the context ofthis management plan, a marine ecosystem is defined byNOAA (2005:3): “An ecosystem is a geographically specified system of organisms, the environment, and the processes that control its dynamics. Humans are an integral partof an ecosystem. An ecosystem approach to managementis management that is adaptive, specified geographically,takes into account ecosystem knowledge and uncertainties, considers multiple external influences, and strives tobalance diverse social objectives.”Conservation biology is a related discipline important tosanctuary management. Within the broader framework ofecosystem studies, conservation biology and communityecology are often linked (Wilson, 2000). Conservation biology is the scientific discipline charged with understandingthe primary threats to biodiversity and with providing information critical for balancing resource use with the preservation of functioning ecosystems (Lawler et al., 2006). ItIII. Sanctuary Settingaddresses the biology of species, communities and ecosystems that are perturbed, either directly or indirectly, byhuman activities or other agents (Soule, 1995). It tends tobe a crisis-driven discipline (Soule, 1985; Wilson, 2000).To effectively inform policy and management, conservation research addresses the most pressing problems and themost threatened systems and organisms. In keeping withthe tenets of conservation biology, this management plan isissue-oriented and takes a Pressure-State-Response approachto problem solving and protecting and conserving sanctuaryresources, as discussed in the Resource States section.During the public comment phase of sanctuary management plan revision, questions were raised about the respective roles of the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries(ONMS) and NOAA Fisheries Service. Both parts of NOAAstrive to meet a common goal of preserving or restoringthe ecological integrity of unique habitats while recognizing that human uses of those habitats must be managed inan environmentally sustainable manner. Both ONMS andNOAA Fisheries Service work towards that goal using thevarious statutory and regulatory tools at their disposal.Under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation andManagement Act (MFCMA), NOAA Fisheries Service strivesto provide for sustainable fisheries using principles of population ecology while at the same time conserving the habitatof both target and non-target marine species. While manyof the existing fishery management plans focus on singlespecies or multi-species complexes, NOAA Fisheries Serviceis mandated to consider the broader impact of fishing on theecosystem and has begun converting many of these plansinto ecosystem plans. The ONMS is principally tasked withmanaging biological communities (together with maritimeheritage resources) using the principles of community ecology within explicitly designated areas (under the NationalMarine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA)). The primary purpose ofthe NMSA is resource protection. Both take an ecosystemapproach to managing fisheries and sanctuaries respectivelyand when applied in a complementary fashion, both statutes can advance the goal of conserving and restoring theecological integrity of important marine areas.Conserving biodiversity is central to the implementationof ecosystem-based sanctuary management, an evolvingapproach that stresses management of the entire sanctuaryecosystem including all biological communities, habitatsand species populations, together with all uses. Biodiversity encompasses all levels of organizational complexity inthe sanctuary, from genetic diversity to species diversity tocommunity diversity. Maintaining the ecological integrityof the sanctuary and, hence, its sustained production ofresources and services requires attention to how the component species interact and how we value those species andinteractions.Use of Coastal and Marine SpatialPlanningAs will be explained in following subsections of this management plan, biodiversity is a key parameter that characterizes27
the composition and health of marine life. Understandingand monitoring marine biodiversity is critical to effectivelyimplementing ecosystem-based management. Coastal andMarine Spatial Planning (CMSP) represents one of many toolscurrently emerging to support ecosystem-based management. On December 4, 2009, the Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force, convened by the White House Council onEnvironmental Quality, released its Interim Framework forEffective Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning initiatives/oceans/interim-framework).This interim framework defines CMSP as “a comprehensive, adaptive, integrated, ecosystem-based, and transparent spatial planning process, based on sound science, foranalyzing current and anticipated uses of ocean, coastal,and Great Lakes areas. CMSP identifies areas most suitablefor various types or classes of activities in order to reduceconflicts among uses, reduce environmental impacts,facilitate compatible uses, and preserve critical ecosystemservices to meet economic, environmental, security andsocial objectives.”To ensure that values associated with marine biodiversityare integrated within CMSP processes, biodiversity can betranslated as services provided by an ecosystem. Doing sonecessitates developing indices that reflect both naturallyoccurring variability in ecological value and the impacts ofhuman activities on ecological value within an ecosystem.Such indices are best developed within areas where highresolution data on species distribution and abundance,genetic diversity, and environmental variables associatedwith habitat preference and provisioning are available toinform a case study.The Stellwagen Bank sanctuary represents a highly productive marine protected area that supports seasonally abundantmarine mammal, seabird and fish populations as well as adiversity of invertebrate (e.g., mollusks, sponges, zooplankton, phytoplankton) and microbial species. It hosts a varietyseafloor habitat types over a complex bathymetry. The sanctuary is also heavily used for a variety of human activitiesand is mandated under the NMSA to ensure that these usesare compatible with the primary goal of resource protection.Meeting this mandate depends on comprehensive characterization of biodiversity and evaluation of biological valuewithin the sanctuary. CMSP can help guide these activitiesthrough complex database integration and spatial visualization.Several monitoring programs in or overlapping the sanctuary area have generated high-resolution information onthe distributions of large whale populations and humanuse (e.g., fishing effort, whale watching, large commercialshipping) as well as physical environment (e.g., sedimenttype, bathymetry). Some of these datasets have longer timeseries than other datasets available most anywhere else inthe world (e.g., distribution of large whales, fishing effort).In addition, an ocean observing system in the sanctuaryfocused on acoustic detection of vocally-active species,assessment of noise impacts, and underwater sound propa-28gation modeling is being used to inform biological observation system development, mapping of human-inducedimpacts and tracking of climate change affects.Due to the richness of these datasets and the richness ofthe collaborative research relationships that have generated them, Stellwagen Bank sanctuary is poised to play acritical role in developing spatially and temporally explicitmetrics of ecological value within sanctuary waters, providing a road-map for regional and national CMSP efforts. Thismanagement plan makes summary assessments and makesreference to representative research products drawn fromthese datasets and incorporates this information into actionplan strategies and activities that were developed based onan extensive, transparent and inclusive process of publicparticipation. CMSP is one of the principal tools being usedto guide management of sanctuary resources, includingmanaging for biodiversity conservation.Managing for Biodiversity ConservationIn federal waters, marine biodiversity conservation isachieved primarily by the interplay of four national statutes: the MFCMA, MMPA, ESA, and the NMSA. These statutes encompass two main objectives: (1) enable long-termsustainable harvest and/or human use and (2) protect and/or restore species, habitats, biological communities, and/orecosystems.The MFCMA was primarily designed to ensure the sustainable harvest of fish and shellfish and has evolved to includethe capability to protect the habitat of target and non-targetspecies. Similarly, the MMPA was designed to protectmarine mammal species many of which were severelydepleted. While offering broad protection to these speciesto ensure their recovery, the MMPA also regulates sustainable harvest or take in specialized cases. By ensuring thatmarine mammals are protected as “significant functioningelements of the ecosystem” the MMPA maintains the capability to protect individual animals, species, populations,and the habitats that sustain them. The ESA’s mandate overlaps that of the MMPA for marine mammal species facingextinction. The ESA’s mandate to protect listed species alsoincludes a mandate to protect distinct animal populationunits and habitats deemed critical to their survival.Enacted around the same time, Title III of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (now also known as theNMSA) was the first legislation to focus on comprehensive and area-specific protection of the marine environment. The NMSA allows uses compatible with the primarypurpose of resource protection. The NMSA affords managers the opportunity to consider management measures(e.g., zoned use within designated areas) for the purpose ofmaintaining “natural biological communities.” By including the broad mandate “to protect, and where appropriate, restore and enhance natural habitats, populations, andecological processes” the NMSA highlights its purpose toprovide holistic protection of biodiversity in these specialareas. Thus, within designated sanctuaries, NOAA encour-Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan and Environmental Assessment
ages integrated implementation of these four statutes for thepurpose of biodiversity conservation.Of the 3,317 species of marine life documented in the GoMregion to date (COML, 2006), there are 41 species of fishthat are managed by the regional fishery management councils and the ASMFC, eight species of tuna and shark thatare managed separately as highly migratory species, and12 species of marine mammals and sea turtles managedunder the ESA. Additionally, there are 39 species of seabirdsmanaged under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Many otherspecies occur in the GoM which are not subject to directmanagement plans, including species that are rare but notendangered, and this group is sizeable (see Sidebar). Whilemany of these species could potentially be the subject ofdirect management, they often gain significant derivativebenefits from the directed management actions mentionedabove and other actions taken by Federal, State and localpartners in the region.In addition, seven important fish species—Atlantic wolfish,cusk, Atlantic halibut, Atlantic salmon, Atlantic sturgeon,thorny skate and barndoor skate are all on the Species ofConcern List for the Endangered Species Act (NOAA 2006).While this designation does not grant any protected status,it indicates that these species warrant attention to insuretheir populations do not decline further. All of these speciescurrently frequent the sanctuary or once did (salmon andsturgeon). Halibut, salmon, sturgeon and skates are included under various fishery management plans (FMPs). Twoof these species (wolfish and cusk), while being consideredfor inclusion under the Multispecies FMP, have no directedfishery management plan despite continued exploitation oftheir populations; they are among the top ten species caughtby the recreational fishery in the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary(see Table 20 in Recreational Fishing section of this document).The NMSA is unique in that it allows management actionsfocused on the protection and conservation of the fullspectrum of biological diversity at a unique and significantsite (e.g., the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary) and can serve asan important complement to other tools available underthe MFCMA and the ESA or MMPA. Congress found thatnational marine sanctuaries are areas of the marine environment which have special conservation and esthetic qualities (among others). Congress mandated that sanctuariesbe designated upon a determination that existing authorities are insufficient or need to be supplemented to protectthe resources of that area. Congress directed that nationalmarine sanctuaries be managed to maintain the habitats,and ecological services, of the natural assemblage of livingresources that inhabit these areas. Among the purposesand policies of the NMSA is provision of authority forcomprehensive conservation and management to maintainthe natural biological communities and to protect, restoreand enhance natural habitats, populations and ecologicalprocesses.In specifying the management of “natural biological communities,” “natural assemblages of living resources” and “natu-III. Sanctuary SettingRarityEcological rarity is defined in a variety of differentways over a range of spatial scales, and the forms thatanalyses take are highly varied (Kunin and Gaston,1997). Although definitions of rarity differ in regard tothe metrics involved, the concept of rarity is universallyaccepted and implicitly linked to the practice ofmanaging for biodiversity conservation. Notably, rarespecies most often are not targeted for economic gainbut are impacted as a consequence of activities directedat the exploitation of more abundant species (e.g.,Auster 2005; Watling and Auster 2005).Many fish species in the GoM might be considered rarebased on the relative abundance of their numbers thatoccur in samples from bottom-trawl monitoring surveys.For example, over a 30-year period (1975-2005), 90% ofthe numerical abundance of the fish community camefrom 7-10 species out of a total of 77 species sampledduring NOAA Fisheries Service research trawls (Austeret al., 2006). The remaining 67-70 species made uponly 10% of the numerical abundance and, therefore,would be considered to have some degree of rarity inthe community. This example assumes that the speciessampled are susceptible to capture in proportion totheir actual abundance.Analysis of such sample data leads to questions aboutthe distribution and abundance of rare species withinthe sanctuary. For example, are species rare due tohuman-caused disturbance or are they naturally rare intheir associated communities? Answers to this questionlead to discussions of the necessity of managementor the need for listing under provisions of the ESA.Another question that arises is focused on whether rarespecies are distributed sparsely and evenly throughparticular habitats or are they rare in most placesand have dense concentrations at limited locations?Answers to this question may indicate the need tomanage impacts in centers of species abundance and toinsure that potential source populations continue theirecological function.ral habitats” rather than focusing on species populations perse, Congress essentially mandated that national marine sanctuaries be managed to protect and conserve biodiversity. Inmanaging for biodiversity conservation, the authorities andprotection measures afforded by all relevant statutes shouldbe brought to bear on solving the problems described in thismanagement plan. Given the unique roles that sanctuariescan play in overall resource conservation and management,it is reasonable to anticipate that the management planwould advocate for a higher level of conservation of livingmarine resources in the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary than mayapply broadly throughout the whole Gulf of Maine. And it isreasonable to expect that human uses such as fishing would29
Concept of Environmentally Sustainable FishingThe concept of environmentally sustainable fishing is compatible with the goal of managing sanctuary resources forbiodiversity conservation. An environmentally sustainablefishery protects the fish and the environment in whichthey live while allowing responsible use of the species thatcome from that environment. It is a fishery in which targetspecies populations and associated habitats and biologicalcommunities remain functionally intact while ensuring afuture for the industry and all those who depend on thefishery for their livelihoods. It is a fishery based on theprinciple of optimization that incorporates within its goalsthe maintenance of biodiversity, biological communitystructure and ecological integrity together with the realization of economically and socially viable fishery productionand yield.An environmentally sustainable fishery is conducted in amanner that does not lead to over-fishing or depletion ofthe exploited resources to a level that imperils their abilityto be a long-term functional component of the ecologicalcommunity and the industry that relies on them. For thosepopulations that are depleted to that level, the fishery isconducted in a manner that demonstrably leads to theirrecovery to sustainable levels. Environmentally sustainablefishing allows for the maintenance of the structure, productivity, function and biodiversity of the ecosystem, including habitat and associated dependent and ecologicallyrelated biological communities. The fishery is conductedin a way that does not lead to trophic (food web) cascadesor ecosystem state changes. The fishery does not threatenbiological diversity at the genetic, species or populationlevels and avoids or minimizes mortality of, or injuries toendangered, threatened or protected species. The fisheryminimizes bycatch (unintentional capture of non-targetspecies) and reduces the wasteful practice of discardingthat bycatch.The practice of environmentally sustainable fishing isconsistent with the 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (United Nations). Environmentallysustainable fishing is conducted in ways that are consistentwith the MFCMA national standards and that are mostlikely to be compatible with the sanctuary’s primary goalof resource protection. Its practice derives from implementation of the principles of ecosystem-based resourcemanagement and bears on the related concept of ecologically sustainable yield (Zabel et al., 2003). Its products cangain promotional and market advantage through voluntarycertification programs (e.g., Marine Stewardship Council(MSC); review by Haland and Esmark, 2002) and web siteadvisories (e.g., www.fishwatch.noaa.gov; www.seafoodwatch.org) and restaurant ratings (e.g., www.fish2fork.com). Managing the sanctuary for biodiversity conservation does not imply that fishing should be eliminated andmay require the sanctuary to work with its partners, including the Fishery Councils and NOAA Fisheries Service, tomodify fishing within the sanctuary in order to conservebiodiversity.30be done in a manner that is environmentally sustainable(see Sidebar).Biodiversity ExplainedBasic UnderstandingThe ocean is the cradle of biological diversity as lifebegan in the sea. A liter of ocean water contains over100 million micro-organisms (Sogin et al., 2006). In fact,micro-organisms represent over 50% of the biomass inthe sea. Some micro-organisms produce their own foodusing sunlight while others are predators, hunting formicrobial prey in a fluid and turbid environment. Theocean also contains larger multi-cellular plants, including encrusting species that produce calcareous “skeletons” as well as large fast growing kelps that can producedense forests rivaling those in tropical jungles. Unlikethe land and freshwater realms of our planet, the oceancontains representatives of every major type of animalgroup (phyla) on earth, from sponges to mammals.Although animals are but a single branch of the tree oflife, they are the group with which we are most familiar.Biological diversity is, simply stated, the variety of life onearth; it is the variability in all living things at all levels ofexamination (United Nations, 1992). It is inclusive of themillions of plants, animals and microbes; the genes theycontain; and the ecosystems they build into the livingenvironment. The definition of “biological diversity” or“biodiversity” deserves some discussion as it can meandifferent things to different people. The most commonmeaning refers simply to “species diversity,” which is allof the species in a defined area or on earth as a whole,including bacteria, protists, and fungi as well as themulti-cellular organisms (plants, animals).The genetic variation within species, both amonggeographically separate populations and among individuals within single populations is termed “geneticdiversity.” While species diversity by definition includesall of the species, or particular groups of species in anarea, genetic diversity refers to the variation within singlespecies. The level of genetic diversity within a population is an indication of the ability of the populationto respond to and persist in the face of environmentalchange.At the highest levels of complexity, “community diversity” and “ecosystem diversity” refer to the differentbiological communities and their associations with thephysical environment (i.e., the ecosystem) that occurwithin an area, geographic region or the earth as a whole.The diversity of communities and ecosystems within aregion is an indication of the range of evolutionary forcesthat have influenced species distributions. The range oforganisms supported at particular sites such as the sanctuary provides a benchmark to understand both naturaland human-induced change.Species richness, quantified simply as the number ofspecies in a particular area, is one of the most straight-Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Management Plan and Environmental Assessment
forward means of characterizing biodiversity and is the principal metric used in this document. Using this measure,there are over 575 species in the Stellwagen Bank sanctuary.Appendix J provides a preliminary list of species, orderedby phylum, currently known to occur within the sanctuaryboundaries. The list is incomplete as it does not includemany pelagic planktonic species that are difficult to captureand identify. NOAA intends to augment this list as more islearned about the diversity of species in the sanctuary.Functional RelevanceIncreasing domination of ecosystems by humans is steadilytransforming them into depauperate systems (Vitousek etal., 1997; Sala et al., 2000). Over-exploitation (overharvest,bycatch and indirect effects of fishing) and habitat loss areconsidered the top threats to marine biodiversity (Kappel,2005). The potential consequences of biodiversity loss havereceived considerable attention (Kinzig, Pacala and Tilman,2002). Yet managing ecosystems to promote biodiversitycan have important practical, utilitarian benefits by maintaining multiple ecosystem services over time in the faceof change (Duffy, 2009; Palumbi et al., 2009). Ecosystemservices include provisioning services (e.g. fish and seafood),regulating services (i.e. climate), recreational services (e.g.fishing, diving and boating), cultural services (e.g. aestheticand spiritual values), and supporting services (e.g. nutrientcycling and primary production) (MA, 2005).The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystemfunctioning (and services) has emerged as a centra
NOAA (2005:3): “An ecosystem is a geographically speci-fied system of organisms, the environment, and the process-es that control its dynamics. Humans are an integral part of an ecosystem. An ecosystem approach to management is management that is adaptive, specified geographically, takes into ac
Brendan Dooley Springfield III AC Ryon Lynch Springfield III AC Mike Schiamanna St. Anselm III HC Zak Bussey St. John Fisher III AC Don Fleming St. Joseph's III AC Tom Rotanz St. Joseph's III HC Patrick Tuohy Stevens III AC Dominic DeFazio Stevenson III AC Tim Puls Stevenson III AC Jare
Abattage des roches b. Foration c. Tir d. Chargement et transport CHAPITRE III CALCUL DE LA STABILITE DES TALUS DE LA CARRIERE DE AIN EL KEBIRA III .1. INTRODUCTION III .2. DETERMINATION DES PROPRIETES MECANIQUES DES ROCHES III.2.1. Résistance a la compression III.2.2. Résistance a la traction III.2.3. Cohésion et angle de frottement interne d’un échantillon III.2.4. Fissuration des .
Reference Charts for New Testament Textual Criticism / 5 Greek Manuscripts Ms Contents Date Trad. Text Type Aland Category Papyri (Egypt) 1 e III A I-s 2 e VI “mixed” III 3 e VI/VII A III 4 e III A I-n 5 e III W I-n 6 e IV II 7 e III-IV? IV-VI? A too brief 8 a IV “mixed A/W” II 9 c III I-f? 10 p IV A I 11 p VII A II
I II III IV V I II III IV V I II III IV V I II III IV V I II III IV V I II III IV V I II III IV V Argentina (2001) Bolivia (2007) Colombia (2007) Ecuador (2009) El Salvador (2008) Mexico (2008) Venezuela (2006) El problema de congestión y consumo de fósiles no es de todos. La tenencia de autos en países de AL esta muy concentrada en el
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Index of Resolutions from 1998 Section III.4 - Eames Commission Section III.5 - The Authority of Holy Scriptures Section III.6 - Instruments of the Anglican Communion Section III.7 - The Lambeth Conference Section III.8 - The Virginia Report Section III.9 - Inter-regional groupings Section III.10 - Ma
III-3. Determination of Wire Condition 42 III-4. Wire Recovery Length 42 III-5. Broken Wires 43 III-5.1 Exterior Broken Wires 43 III-5.2 Interior Broken Wires 43 III-6. Cracked Wires 46 III-7. Strength Evaluation using the BTC Method 46 iv
Chapter III.A Domestic Public Resources Chapter III.B. Domestic and international private business and finance Chapter III.C. International Development Cooperation Chapter III.D. International trade as an engine for development Chapter III.E. Debt and Debt Sustainability Chapter III.F Addressing systemic issues
