Principles Of Political Economy - Project Gutenberg
The Project Gutenberg EBook of Principles Of Political Economyby John Stuart MillThis eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no costand with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copyit, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the ProjectGutenberg License included with this eBook or online athttp://www.gutenberg.org/licenseTitle: Principles Of Political EconomyAuthor: John Stuart MillRelease Date: September 27, 2009 [Ebook 30107]Language: English***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOKPRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY***
Principles Of Political EconomyByJohn Stuart MillAbridged, with Critical, Bibliographical,and Explanatory Notes, and a Sketchof the History of Political Economy,ByJ. Laurence Laughlin, Ph. D.Assistant Professor of Political Economy in HarvardUniversityA Text-Book For Colleges.New York:D. Appleton And Company,1, 3, and 5 Bond Street.1885
ContentsPreface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Introductory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A Sketch Of The History Of Political Economy. . . . .Books For Consultation (From English, French, AndGerman Authors). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Preliminary Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Book I. Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter I. Of The Requisites Of Production. . . . . . .§ 1. The requisites of production. . . . . . . . . .§ 2. The Second Requisite of Production, Labor. .§ 3. Of Capital as a Requisite of Production. . . .Chapter II. Of Unproductive Labor. . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Definition of Productive and UnproductiveLabor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Productive and Unproductive Consumption. .§ 3. Distinction Between Labor for the Supply ofProductive Consumption and Labor forthe Supply of Unproductive Consumption.Chapter III. Of Capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Capital is Wealth Appropriated to Reproductive Employment. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. More Capital Devoted to Production thanActually Employed in it. . . . . . . . . .§ 3. Examination of Cases Illustrative of the Ideaof Capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter IV. Fundamental Propositions RespectingCapital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Industry is Limited by Capital. . . . . . . . .2775357626262646770707172757578818585
ivPrinciples Of Political Economy§ 2. Increase of Capital gives Increased Employment to Labor, Without AssignableBounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. Capital is the result of Saving, and all Capitalis Consumed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Capital is kept up by Perpetual Reproduction,as shown by the Recovery of Countriesfrom Devastation. . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. Effects of Defraying Government Expenditure by Loans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 6. Demand for Commodities is not Demandfor Labor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter V. On Circulating And Fixed Capital. . . . . .§ 1. Fixed and Circulating Capital. . . . . . . . .§ 2. Increase of Fixed Capital, when, at theExpense of Circulating, might be Detrimental to the Laborers. . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. —This seldom, if ever, occurs. . . . . . . . .Chapter VI. Of Causes Affecting The Efficiency OfProduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. General Causes of Superior Productiveness. .§ 2. Combination and Division of Labor IncreaseProductiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. Advantages of Division of Labor. . . . . . .§ 4. Production on a Large and Production on aSmall Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter VII. Of The Law Of The Increase Of Labor. .§ 1. The Law of the Increase of Production Depends on those of Three Elements—Labor. Capital, and Land. . . . .§ 2. The Law of Population. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. By what Checks the Increase of Populationis Practically Limited. . . . . . . . . . .Chapter VIII. Of The Law Of The Increase Of 30130133140
v§ 1. Means for Saving in the Surplus aboveNecessaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Motive for Saving in the Surplus aboveNecessaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. Examples of Deficiency in the Strength ofthis Desire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Examples of Excess of this Desire. . . . . .Chapter IX. Of The Law Of The Increase Of ProductionFrom Land. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. The Law of Production from the Soil, a Lawof Diminishing Return in Proportion tothe Increased Application of Labor andCapital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Antagonist Principle to the Law of Diminishing Return; the Progress of Improvements in Production. . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. —In Railways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. —In Manufactures. . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. Law Holds True of Mining. . . . . . . . .Chapter X. Consequences Of The Foregoing Laws. .§ 1. Remedies for Weakness of the Principle ofAccumulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Even where the Desire to Accumulate isStrong, Population must be Kept withinthe Limits of Population from Land. . .§ 3. Necessity of Restraining Population notsuperseded by Free Trade in Food. . . .§ 4. —Nor by Emigration. . . . . . . . . . . .Book II. Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter I. Of Property. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Individual Property and its opponents. . . .§ 2. The case for Communism against privateproperty presented. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. The Socialists who appeal to state-help. . . 140. 141. 144. 147. 151. 151.155158162167170. 170. 171.175177182182182. 185. 188
viPrinciples Of Political Economy§ 4. Of various minor schemes, Communisticand Socialistic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. The Socialist objections to the present orderof Society examined. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 6. Property in land different from property inMovables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter II. Of Wages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Of Competition and Custom. . . . . . . . . .§ 2. The Wages-fund, and the Objections to itConsidered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. Examination of some popular Opinionsrespecting Wages. . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Certain rare Circumstances excepted, HighWages imply Restraints on Population. .§ 5. Due Restriction of Population the onlySafeguard of a Laboring-Class. . . . . . .Chapter III. Of Remedies For Low Wages. . . . . . . .§ 1. A Legal or Customary Minimum of Wages,with a Guarantee of Employment. . . . .§ 2. —Would Require as a Condition LegalMeasures for Repression of Population. .§ 3. Allowances in Aid of Wages and theStandard of Living. . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Grounds for Expecting Improvement in Public Opinion on the Subject of Population.§ 5. Twofold means of Elevating the Habits ofthe Laboring-People; by Education, andby Foreign and Home Colonization. . . .Chapter IV. Of The Differences Of Wages In DifferentEmployments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Differences of Wages Arising from DifferentDegrees of Attractiveness in DifferentEmployments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Differences arising from Natural 233235238238241
vii§ 3. Effect on Wages of the Competition ofPersons having other Means of Support.§ 4. Wages of Women, why Lower than those ofMen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. Differences of Wages Arising from Laws,Combinations, or Customs. . . . . . . .Chapter V. Of Profits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Profits include Interest and Risk; but,correctly speaking, do not include Wagesof Superintendence. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. The Minimum of Profits; what producesVariations in the Amount of Profits. . .§ 3. General Tendency of Profits to an Equality.§ 4. The Cause of the Existence of any Profit;the Advances of Capitalists consist ofWages of Labor. . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. The Rate of Profit depends on the Cost ofLabor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter VI. Of Rent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Rent the Effect of a Natural Monopoly. . .§ 2. No Land can pay Rent except Land ofsuch Quality or Situation as exists in lessQuantity than the Demand. . . . . . . .§ 3. The Rent of Land is the Excess of its Returnabove the Return to the worst Land inCultivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. —Or to the Capital employed in the leastadvantageous Circumstances. . . . . .§ 5. Opposing Views of the Law of Rent. . . .§ 6. Rent does not enter into the Cost of Production of Agricultural Produce. . . . . . .Book III. Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter I. Of Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243. 246. 248. 250. 250. 253. 255. 260. 262. 270. 270. 271. 273. 275. 279. 284. 286. 286
viiiPrinciples Of Political Economy§ 1. Definitions of Value in Use, ExchangeValue, and Price. . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Conditions of Value: Utility, Difficulty ofAttainment, and Transferableness. . . . .§ 3. Commodities limited in Quantity by the lawof Demand and Supply: General workingof this Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Miscellaneous Cases falling under this Law.§ 5. Commodities which are Susceptible of Indefinite Multiplication without Increaseof Cost. Law of their Value Cost ofProduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 6. The Value of these Commodities confirm, inthe long run, to their Cost of Productionthrough the operation of Demand andSupply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter II. Ultimate Analysis Of Cost Of Production. .§ 1. Of Labor, the principal Element in Cost ofProduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Wages affect Values, only if different indifferent employments; “non-competinggroups.” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. Profits an element in Cost of Production. . .§ 4. Cost of Production properly represented bysacrifice, or cost, to the Laborer as wellas to the Capitalist; the relation of thisconception to the Cost of Labor. . . . . .§ 5. When profits vary from Employment toEmployment, or are spread over unequallengths of Time, they affect Values accordingly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 6. Occasional Elements in Cost of Production;taxes and ground-rent. . . . . . . . . . .Chapter III. Of Rent, In Its Relation To Value. . . . . .286289294297299302306306308309310316320322
ix§ 1. Commodities which are susceptible of indefinite Multiplication, but not withoutincrease of Cost. Law of their Value,Cost of Production in the most unfavorable existing circumstances. . . . . . . . 322§ 2. Such commodities, when Produced in circumstances more favorable, yield a Rentequal to the difference of Cost. . . . . . . 325§ 3. Rent of Mines and Fisheries and ground-rentof Buildings, and cases of gain analogousto Rent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327§ 4. Résumé of the laws of value of each of thethree classes of commodities. . . . . . . 331Chapter IV. Of Money. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333§ 1. The three functions of Money—a CommonDenominator of Value, a Medium ofExchange, a “Standard of Value”. . . . . 333§ 2. Gold and Silver, why fitted for those purposes.338§ 3. Money a mere contrivance for facilitatingexchanges, which does not affect thelaws of value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340Chapter V. Of The Value Of Money, As DependentOn Demand And Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343§ 1. Value of Money, an ambiguous expression. . 343§ 2. The Value of Money depends on its quantity. 343§ 3. —Together with the Rapidity of Circulation. 346§ 4. Explanations and Limitations of this Principle.349Chapter VI. Of The Value Of Money, As DependentOn Cost Of Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352§ 1. The value of Money, in a state of Freedom,conforms to the value of the Bullioncontained in it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352§ 2. —Which is determined by the cost ofproduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
xPrinciples Of Political Economy§ 3. This law, how related to the principle laiddown in the preceding chapter. . . . . . .Chapter VII. Of A Double Standard And SubsidiaryCoins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Objections to a Double Standard. . . . . . .§ 2. The use of the two metals as money, and themanagement of Subsidiary Coins. . . . .§ 3. The experience of the United States with adouble standard from 1792 to 1883. . . .Chapter VIII. Of Credit, As A Substitute For Money. .§ 1. Credit not a creation but a Transfer of themeans of Production. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. In what manner it assists Production. . . . .§ 3. Function of Credit in economizing the useof Money. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Bills of Exchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. Promissory Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 6. Deposits and Checks. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter IX. Influence Of Credit On Prices. . . . . . . .§ 1. What acts on prices is Credit, in whatevershape given. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Credit a purchasing Power, similar to Money.§ 3. Great extensions and contractions of Credit.Phenomena of a commercial crisis analyzed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Influence of the different forms of Credit onPrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. On what the use of Credit depends. . . . . .§ 6. What is essential to the idea of Money? . . .Chapter X. Of An Inconvertible Paper Currency. . . . .§ 1. What determines the value of an inconvertible paper money? . . . . . . . . . . . 96398399401401
xi§ 2. If regulated by the price of Bullion, asinconvertible Currency might be safe,but not Expedient. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 3. Examination of the doctrine that an inconvertible Current is safe, if representingactual Property. . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 4. Experiments with paper Money in the UnitedStates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .§ 5. Examination of the gain arising from theincrease and issue of paper Currency. .§ 6. Résumé of the subject of money. . . . . . .Chapter XI. Of Excess Of Supply. . . . . . . . . . .§ 1. The theory of a general Over-Supply ofCommodities stated. . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. The supply of commodities in general cannot exceed the power of Purchase. . . .§ 3. There can never be a lack of Demand arisingfrom lack of Desire to Consume. . . . .§ 4. Origin and Explanation of the notion ofgeneral Over-Supply. . . . . . . . . . .Chapter XII. Of Some Peculiar Cases Of Value. . . .§ 1. Values of commodities which have a jointcost of production. . . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Values of the different kinds of agriculturalproduce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter XIII. Of International Trade. . . . . . . . . .§ 1. Cost of Production not a regulator ofinternational values. Extension of theword “international.” . . . . . . . . . .§ 2. Interchange of commodities between distance places determined by differencesnot in their absolute, but in the comparative, costs of production. . . . . . . . . 408. 410. 414. 420. 423. 425. 425. 426. 427. 429. 432. 432. 434. 438. 438. 441
xiiPrinciples Of Political Economy§ 3. The direct benefits of commerce consistin increased Efficiency of the productivepowers of the World. . . . . . . . . . . . 447§ 4. —Not in a Vent for exports, nor in the gainsof Merchants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449§ 5. Indirect benefits of Commerce, Economicaland Moral; still greater than the Direct. . 452Chapter XIV. Of International Values. . . . . . . . . . 454§ 1. The values of imported commodities dependon the Terms of international interchange. 454§ 2. The values of foreign commodities depend,not upon Cost of Production, but uponReciprocal Demand and Supply. . . . . . 455§ 3. —As illustrated by trade in cloth and linenbetween England and Germany. . . . . . 460§ 4. The conclusion states in the Equation ofInternational Demand. . . . . . . . . . . 463§ 5. The cost to a country of its imports dependsnot only on the ratio of exchange, but onthe efficiency of its labor. . . . . . . . . 466Chapter XV. Of Money Considered As An ImportedCommodity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469§ 1. Money imported on two modes; as aCommodity, and as a medium of Exchange.469§ 2. As a commodity, it obeys the same laws ofValue as other imported Commodities. . 470Chapter XVI. Of The Foreign Exchanges. . . . . . . . 475§ 1. Money passes from country to countryas a Medium of Exchange, through theExchanges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475§ 2. Distinction between Variations in theExchanges which are self-adjusting andthose which can only be rectified throughPrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
xiiiChapter XVII. Of The Distribution Of The PreciousMetals Through The Commercial World. . . . . 485§ 1. The substitution of money for barter makesno difference in exports and imports, norin the Law of international Values. . . . . 485§ 2. The preceding Theorem further illustrated. . 489§ 3. The precious metals, as money, are of thesame Value, and distribute themselvesaccording to the same Law, with theprecious metals as a Commodity. . . . . 494§ 4. International payments entering into the“financial account.” . . . . . . . . . . . . 495Chapter XVIII. Influence Of The Currency On TheExchanges And On Foreign Trade. . . . . . . . . 499§ 1. Variations in the exchange, which originatein the Currency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499§ 2. Effect of a sudden increase of a metallicCurrency, or of the sudden creation ofBank-Notes or other substitutes for Money.500§ 3. Effect of the increase of an inconvertible paper Currency. Real and nominalexchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505Chapter XIX. Of The Rate Of Interest. . . . . . . . . . 510§ 1. The Rate of Interest depends on the Demandand Supply of Loans. . . . . . . . . . . . 510§ 2. Circumstances which Determine the Permanent Demand and Supply of Loans. . . . 511§ 3. Circumstances which Determine the Fluctuations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514§ 4. The Rate of Interest not really Connectedwith the value of Money, but often confounded with it. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518§ 5. The Rate of Interest determines the price ofland and of Securities. . . . . . . . . . . 519
xivPrinciples Of Political EconomyChapter XX. Of The Competition Of Different Countries In The Same Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . 522§ 1. Causes which enable one Country to undersell another. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522§ 2. High wages do not prevent one Countryfrom underselling another. . . . . . . . . 525§ 3. Low wages enable a Country to undersell another, when Peculiar to certain branchesof Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531§ 4. —But not when common to All. . . . . . . . 534§ 5. Low profits as affecting the carrying Trade. . 537Chapter XXI. Of Distribution, As Affected By Exchange.539§ 1. Exchange and money make no Difference inthe law of Wages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539§ 2. In the law of Rent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542§ 3. —Nor in the law of Profits. . . . . . . . . . 543Book IV. Influence Of The Progress Of Society On Production And Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547Chapter I. Influence Of The Progress Of Industry AndPopulation On Values And Prices. . . . . . . . . 547§ 1. Tendency of the progress of society toward increased Command over the powers of Nature; increased Security, andincreased Capacity of Co-Operation. . . . 547§ 2. Tendency to a Decline of the Value and Costof Production of all Commodities. . . . . 549§ 3. —except the products of Agriculture andMining, which have a tendency to Rise. . 553§ 4. —that tendency from time to time Counteracted by Improvements in Production. . . 558§ 5. Effect of the Progress of Society in moderating fluctuations of Value. . . . . . . . . 559Chapter II. Influence Of The Progress Of Industry AndPopulation On Rents, Profits, And Wages. . . . . 564
xv§ 1. Characteristic features of industrial Progress. 564§ 2. First two cases, Population and Capitalincreasing, the arts of production stationary.564§ 3. The arts of production advancing, capitaland population stationary. . . . . . . . . 567§ 4
Principles Of Political Economy By John Stuart Mill Abridged, with Critical, Bibliographical, and Explanatory Notes, and a Sketch of the History of Political Economy,
2.5. A summary prospectus for applied political economy analysis 16 3. Political economy and governance analyses in the water and sanitation sector 19 3.1. From governance to political economy analyses 19 3.2. The role of political economy in sector reform and delivery 21 3.3. Key political economy issues for water supply and sanitation service .
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