Translation And Modernity: Ṭaha ʿAbd Ar Raḥmān’s Project .
Translation and modernity: Ṭaha ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān’s project of renewing IslamicthoughtAn earlier version of the text was presented at the 29th Conference of the Union Européenne des Arabisants etIslamisants (UEAI): Conflict and Coexistence in Münster, Germany, September 10 - 14, 2018.Mariana MalinovaDuring a series of interviews with the al-Jazeera television channel in May2006, the Moroccan thinker Ṭaha ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān (b. 1944) recounted a personal storyabouttheinitial influencestowards hisintellectualdevelopment. The longprocesses of his intellectual search and drive for self-perfection were sparked by theprofound impact on him that was left by the Six-Day War in 1967, resulting in Arab defeat.I was a student, and that shook me deeply; as if I saw then that the path I follow in my ideasand works is not the way we should go. I was then overwhelmingly consumed by thequestion of what is this mind that has defeated us: a multitudinous community, firmly rootedin its own history?! [ ] Because I contributed this defeat to some defect in our way ofthinking, I rationalized that the intellect that defeated the Arabs and Muslims had somethingthat was deserving of the victory1.This narrative of a personal epistemological crisis, triggered by the defeat of that war in1967, is descriptive of the bigger picture of the situation that Arab-Islamic tradition is facingwhen challenged by its experience with modernity. The notion of epistemological crisis 006/5/19/1 ج - للفلسفة - جديد - تصور - الرحمن - عبد - طه
best suited to describe both the drastic change of historical and social conditions theArab/Muslim world is going through ̶ from its first encounter with Western cultural andpolitical models ̶ and the current situation of Arab intellectuals. The modernization processgenerated deep cultural, political and social transformations and violates the traditionalfoundations of Muslim society.By reflecting on his personal reaction to the Arab defeat in the Six-Day War, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmāninvites us to consider its greater effect on his intellectual heritage: that is, its link andinclusion within the larger epistemological crisis of the Arab-Islamic tradition.The concept of epistemological crisis, a term introduced by Alasdair MacIntyre2, marks astage in the history of traditions when the tradition-constituted enquiry ceases to makeprogress by its own standards3. This period is characterized by the decline of the practicestypical for any tradition, the ineffectiveness of former methods of enquiry, and the dilutionof its standards of perfection. Such a crisis can be resolved by introducing new ideas andnew concepts through the use of a different and novel narrative: one that not only explainsthe reasons for the stagnation of the tradition but, at the same time, proposes its renewalwithout breaking the connection and continuity with the past.Thus, in order to create a new narrative for Islamic modernity, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān dedicatedhis intellectual efforts to link the modernization processes with the Islamic tradition, and tomobilize the moral resources of this tradition. In lieu of the Western view of modernity,typically defined by marginalization and loss of tradition, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān argues that inorder to meet the challenges of the new world, the modern project of the Muslimcommunity will only succeed by rethinking its own historical experiences, its own culturaltraditions and rediscovering their powerful moral charge.His project to reform Islam begins with rethinking the very concept of modernity and itsrelation to tradition. He argues against any uncritical adoption or adaptation of Westernstandards in order to define and understand modernity as it is one that is opposed totradition. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān further insists that modernity and Westernization are notidentical and should not be considered synonymous: that Western modernity is2A. MacIntyre, Epistemological Crises, Dramatic Narrative and the Philosophy of Science, The Monist60, 4 (1977), pp. 453-472.3A. MacIntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality?, Notre Dame Indiana, 1988, p. 361.
not exclusively the authentic one, even though historically it precedes all other (nonWestern) experiences and contextual expressions of the same idea4. All these “multiplereadings and experiences of modernity” raise the question of what constitutes its essence orcommon core.ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān advocates the equal right of every nation to be associated with the spirit ofmodernity:In fact, the spirit of modernity belongs to every civilized country, to every country that hasfulfilled the two imperatives for a claim to civilisation, namely the “constructional process”(al-fiʿl al-ʿumrānī) representing the material aspect of being civilised (al-jānib al-mādī) andthe "historical process" (al-fiʿl at-taʾrīkhī), accounting for the moral side (al-jānib almaʿnawī). Nations differ only in the degree of their fulfilment of these two acts, based ontheir accumulation of knowledge and human values over the centuries5.In his reading of the concept, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān narrows down modernity to three emintheirhistoricalmanifestation. These constitute the essence of modernity: Spirit of Modernity (rūḥ alḥadātha), while their local and variable manifestations are the Reality of Modernity (wāqiʿal- ḥadātha). According to ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, each of the three principles is based on twopillars: 1) the principle of maturity, or majority (mabdaʾ al-rushd), and its two pillars ofautonomy and creativity (rukn al-istiqlāl and rukn al-ibdāʿ), 2) the principle of criticism(mabdaʾ al-naqd) and its pillars of rationalization and differentiation (rukn al-taʿqīl and rukn4S.N. Eisenstadt, Multiple Modernities, Daedalus, 129, 1 (2000), pp. 1-29, p. 3.Ṭaha ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, Rūḥ al-ḥadātha. Al-madkhal ilā taʾsīs al-ḥadātha al-islāmiyya [The Spirit ofModernity: An Introduction to Founding the Islamic Modernity]. Beirut and Casablanca, 2006, p. 31;Ṭaha ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān (Taha Abdurrahmane), Essence of Modernity and Right to Creativity, JournalIslam Today, 21 (2004), pp. 1-42, p. 5.5
al-tafṣīl, or al-tafrīq), and 3) the principle of universality (mabdaʾ al-shumūl) and its pillars ofextensibility and generality (rukn al-tawassuʿ and rukn al-taʿmīm)6.All these principles that constitute the essence of modernity imply that modernity can beinduced and manifested in different forms and circumstances. The potential of any of thethree principles cannot be exhausted through any single application, whether cultural orhistorical. As a result, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān argues for distinguishing between the universalessence of modernity and its particular historical and cultural manifestations which makes/1/ the reality of the Western modernism as one of the many possible applications inherentin the very spirit of modernity; /2/ it defines modernity as an unfinished project which isopen to be reinterpreted from different cultural and historical perspectives; and /3/ itdefines modernity as internal creative process in the development of cultural and religioustraditions and offers a new evaluating framework with common starting point(s) fromwhich the different versions of modernity can be compared and evaluated.Accordingly, his vision of Islamic modernism depends on two fundamentals: autonomy andcreativity which are the pillars of the first principle of modernity: the principle of maturity7.Explaining it, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān refers to Kant’s reflections in his well-known essay“Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?” (“What is Enlightenment?”). Following Kant,he argues that modernity entails a shift from a state of immaturity to maturity. Immaturity isexplained as a dependency in thoughts and deeds and inability to take responsibility to ownone’s decisions. This dependency can be expressed as an unintentional aspiration orsubconscious desire to blindly imitate others’ ways of thinking, without considering itscultural and historical background. In order to be implemented, the principle of majorityrequires independent thinking which in turn calls for freedom from any higher authority andcreates enough space for creativity.In the specific case of the new Islamic modernity, freedom signifies liberation of Islamicthought and independence from the Western model (which historically has monopolized allinterpretations of modernity and turned it into a colonial tutelage.) By copying the Western6Ṭaha ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, Rūḥ al-ḥadātha. p. 24.For a detailed account of each of the three principles see: Ṭaha ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, Rūḥ al-ḥadātha. Forthe purpose of this text, the focus will remain on the practice and the role of translation, formulatedand explored in details in the first principle.7
way of applying the essence of modernity, Muslim society limits itself to the application ofexternal features of modernity and fails to create its own internal modernity that deniesimitation and springs from within its own tradition. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān criticizes modernMuslim thought that imitates the dominating Western concepts and theories, without takinginto account the deep historical, cultural and political processes that led to theircrystallization. He concludes that the power of creativity has been disabled in Islamicsocieties and that imitation has become second nature to them. Thus, this misunderstandingof modernity produces quasi-modernity which poses itself as the biggest challenge forMuslim societies and inhibits their ability to adapt and embrace change.Hence, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān defines the main task of Muslim society today as emancipation fromthe intellectual tutelage of the West and calls for a shift away from the current state of“delusive”, “imitated” autonomy towards creative autonomy and true creativity. Byemphasizing the post-colonial message of this statement, he demonstrates how theconcrete context manifests the universal essence of modernity and its principles.ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān calls this new autonomy “responsible one” (istiqlāl masʾūl) and sees itspractical implication in a “true modernist translation” (al-tarjama al-ḥadāthiyya al-ḥaqqa)which is understood as an equal cultural exchange that is mutually beneficial, thus, havingthe creative ability to “give and take”.Hence, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān claims that a Muslim cannot enter modernity without renewal of hispractice of translation. The renewal of translation guarantees reinventing the links with theOther and reconnecting with them8. In light of this understanding of translation, ʿAbd arRaḥmān is revising the translation traditions in Arabic and reassesses them.In the history of Islamic civilization, there are two main periods of translation activity: theʿAbbasid translation movement from 8th-10th centuries and the modern translating processin the late 19th and early 20th centuries (al-Naḥḍa.) The first period marks the encounterbetween the new religion of Islam and the ancient cultures of Greece and Persia, when Islamhad to cope with the spiritual confrontation of Hellenized Christianity and the dualistEastern traditions whose ideas and concepts have been a serious test of traditional Islamic8ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, Rūḥ al-ḥadātha. p. 148.
discourse. The second one marks the beginning of the Muslim revival and still continues tothis day.By comparing the two translation practices, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān considers translation activitynot as an activity carried out horizontally in linguistic exchange between languages andcultures, but rather as distinct power hierarchies and a system of power relations, indicatingways in which one culture dominates another. He argues that translation, as we witness it inMuslim societies, reproduces the hierarchical relationship of tutelage and power. Followingthe principle of majority, Arabic translation has, in practice, misinterpreted the pillar ofautonomy. In varying degrees, the two periods of translation imitate thoughts, ideas andways of life that are neither deep-rooted nor organic in Muslim societies. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmānrefers to these two practices as imitations of both the ancient as well as modern thought –taqlīd al-fikr al qadīm wa taqlid al-fikr al-ḥadīth9. As such, they both failed to initiate anIslamic Revival.He states that despite this, those two periods are not similar because of the differentbalance of powers between the two cultures during the time these translations were made.In the first period, the Arabic speaking actors of the translation movement were in adominant position, while the contemporary translators are in a weaker and more dependentsituation. Since the ʿAbbasid translation movement was a voluntary act dictated by thedesire to strengthen identity, the translation activity from al-Naḥḍa period is anunintentional emotion emanating from the self-preservation instinct of the target culture10.The texts translated in the ʿAbbasid era were well chosen to avoid contradicting the moralvalues of the recipient culture, whereas today’s translation activities lack control over thetranslated texts and violate the moral standards of Muslim society.Both periods can be interpreted within the concept of the epistemological crisis. Aspreviously mentioned, a means towards a solution is to create new conceptual and linguisticresources and theories that will help Islam rationalize its fundamentals and, in a critical selfreflection, realize the causes that have led to this crisis. This in turn allows them to activatetheir own creative resources to solve the issue. However, this cannot be achieved by a mere9ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, Rūḥ al-ḥadātha. p. 38.Ibid., p. 150.10
transfer of foreign ideas and concepts into a linguistic and ideological environment withinthe tradition that is in crisis. In order to be acceptable and justified, these foreign elementsmust meet three important requirements: /1/ first, they must give solutions to problemsthat could not be resolved using the older methods; /2/ second, they must initiate criticalself-reflection to explain the reasons behind the crisis and /3/ third, they have to be in linewith the original tradition and must not contradict its moral values and rational standards11.Despite the indisputable contributions of the ʿAbbasid translation movement (i.e., creationof new criteria and ideas that have influenced the formation of theology; the developmentof religious sciences and the emergence of Muslim philosophy,) ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān argues thatthe mistranslation of classical Greek concepts and their mechanical introduction into thetexture of Arabic language have led to the isolation of Muslim philosophy and perpetuatesits dependency on foreign philosophical projects12.He also believes that the Arab Muslim world has lost its identity, because it lost itsmilestones for self-reflection and renewal and started to “perceive itself through the eyes ofthe Other”13, a process initiated from the time of ʿAbbasid translations and that continuesthrough to the present.In the process of the gradual accumulation of cultural borrowing (al-iqtibās), its identityeventually dissolves in the identity of the Other, which began with taking concepts andproblems that seemed necessary for the renewal of Muslim thought. By continuing thisprocess, ultimately the entire cultural heritage of the Other is copied and used as a startingpoint for the renewal of the society – borrowing becomes a common practice14.With these considerations in mind, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān argues that the role of translation iscrucial in identifying the resulting fallacies and in debunking them. The question ofresponsible autonomy in thinking requires a high degree of self-reflection that each traditionshould possess and a reconsideration of the relationship with the Other as a mandatorycondition for self-criticism. Thus, the notion of translation must become central to the11A. MacIntyre, Whose Justice? Which Rationality?, p. 362.ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, al-Ḥaqq al-ʿarabī fī l-ikhtilāf al-falsafī (The Arab Right to Philosophical Difference),Casablanca and Beirut, 2002.13ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, Rūḥ al-ḥadātha, p. 158.14Ibid., p. 157.12
debate about the Islamic revival, to reconnect with the past and to critically reflect onmodernity, in general. In doing so, Muslim intellectuals must redefine the notion oftranslation and problematize the old translational methods.ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān ’s conceptualisation of translation is based on the socio-cultural context inwhich translation takes place. For him, it is important to judge translations within a socialcontext where every translator must endeavour not only to transform an original into thetarget language, but to adapt the original to the needs of the receiving culture. Thus, hemust “strive to achieve an effect on the Arabic speaking recipient and to satisfy his needs.And this recipient deserves nothing more than a liberation of his mind15”.Hence, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān calls for a new understanding of translation, calling it “exploratorytranslation” (tarjama iktishāfiyya). For him, it is a translation that will reveal not only thecreative energy of the original text to the recipient, but also allow him to master the creativepower of the author of the original and turn it into his own creativity.Translation is seen as an ethical and ideological activity rather than as a mere linguisticimitation because for ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān the translator has the responsibility to free thetranslation from the tutelage of the original. The concept of translation-as-explorationindicates that the role of translator is seen as an active agent of the translational processand as one who reveals the creative potential of the original on all levels of the text andcares about the role of the translation products in the recipient culture.ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān explains that, from the point of view of the emancipation of translationfrom the original, exploratory translation refers to the translation of three different levels ofthe text16: denotational (or conceptual) level that refers to the meaning of the original; thecommunicative level, which refers to the linguistic expression of the concrete and abstractmeanings; and structural level, that refers to the grammar.The new understanding of translation completely overturns translational practiceunderstood as a simple linguistic transfer from the lowest to the highest level of language,15ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān, Rūḥ al-ḥadātha, p. 161.Ibid. p. 169, n. 17. This classification of levels in translation summarizes translation as an intellectualprocess. They meet the three levels of translation of philosophical texts that he develops in his book:Fiqh al-falsafa. 1. al-Falsafa wa al-tarjama. (Praxeology of Philosophy. Book 1. Philosophy andTranslation), Casablanca and Beirut, 1995, pp. 299-409.16
from the grammatical to the conceptual. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān’s exploratory translationprioritizes the translation of the highest level of the text – the conceptual one. This refers totranslation of ideas and mental structures that build the content of the original. ʿAbd arRaḥmān explains this practice as a “translation of a set of fundamental questions answeredby the original and a set of arguments needed for those answers17”. That is the level wheretwo languages and cultures can meet on a ground of common and universal concepts andvalues. It means that by translation the core ideas of the original, the Arabic translation’srecipient acquires knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the generation of ideas andtheir manifestation in the language-in-use. The translator has an active role in expressingthose universal ideas in ordinary well-known lexical and syntactic units by preserving thelinguistic and aesthetic norms of Arabic language. ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān claims that this is the“way the translator enhances the creative potential of the recipient until he [the recipient]overcomes his inclination to imitation when facing new ideas expressed in commonexpressions and clear meanings18”.If by mastering the translation on communicative and grammatical levels, the s
The renewal of translation guarantees reinventing the links with the Other and reconnecting with them8. In light of this understanding of translation, ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān is revising the translation traditions in Arabic and reassesses them. In the history of Islamic civilization, there are two main periods of translation activity: the
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The importance of Translation theory in translation Many theorists' views have been put forward, towards the importance of Translation theory in translation process. Translation theory does not give a direct solution to the translator; instead, it shows the roadmap of translation process. Theoretical recommendations are, always,
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