Holland’s Theory In A Post-Modern World
Holland’s Theory1HOLLAND’S THEORY IN AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT:APPLICABILITY OF RIASEC STRUCTURE AND ASSESSMENTSTechnical Report No. 50Emily E. Bullock, Lindsay Andrews, and Jennifer BraudUniversity of Southern MississippiRobert C. ReardonFlorida State UniversityEmily Bullock is an Assistant Professor at the University of Southern Mississippi, where she hasbeen a faculty member in the USM Counseling Psychology program since 2006. She leads aresearch team focused on vocational psychology and career counseling. Jennifer Braud is aCounseling Psychology doctoral student at The University of Southern Mississippi. She is also agraduate counselor at Clearview Recovery Center in Hattiesburg, MS. Lindsay Andrews is adoctoral student in the Counseling Psychology program at The University of SouthernMississippi. Robert Reardon is Professor Emeritus and Senior Research Associate in the CareerCenter at Florida State University. Correspondence for this article can be addressed to Emily E.Bullock, Ph.D.; University of Southern Mississippi; Department of Psychology; 118 CollegeDrive #5025; Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406-0001. Phone: 601-266-6603; Email:Emily.Bullock@usm.edu; FAX: 601-266-5580
Holland’s Theory2AbstractHolland’s RIASEC theory was designed to meet the vocational needs of people in the U.S. in themid-twentieth century. This article reviews literature relevant to the applicability of the RIASECmodel’s structure and Holland-based assessments in global cultures and contexts for which theywere not originally intended. We examined literature produced after a 1996 meta-analysis of asimilar topic, which proved to be mixed but somewhat more supportive of the internationalapplicability of RIASEC structure and Holland-based assessments. The discussion includes acommentary on the applicability of Holland’s theory in a post-modern world with its globaleconomy and rapid change.
Holland’s Theory3HOLLAND’S THEORY IN AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT:APPLICABILITY OF RIASEC STRUCTURE AND ASSESSMENTSJohn L. Holland’s (1997) RIASEC theory was designed to address vocational issues ofpeople living in the U.S. in the mid-twentieth century. However, U.S. values of individualism,independent decision making, and immediate-family structure (Stead & Watson, 1998) are notthe norm in many places, and relentless global change seems to further challenge this matchingtheory. As a result, some have criticized the contribution of Holland’s theory and doubt itsapplicability to non-majority U.S. citizens and the 21st century worker in a global economy(Brown, 2002). This criticism seems to have amplified as there has been increased discussion ofthe internationalization of career counseling and a rise in post-modern thought with regards tohow careers and working are conceptualized (Collin & Young, 2000; Savickas et al, 2009). Thepresent literature review seeks to determine the current, international applicability of RIASECstructure and Holland theory-based instruments in a time of change.Post-modern thought arose when modern philosophies encountered difficulties. Postmodern thought has been influential in many fields (i.e., literature, art, psychology) due to how itaddressed cultural influences as diverse cultures have gained increased international respect(Kahn & Lourenco, 1999). Vocational psychology and counseling have also seen the influenceof post-modern thought, which at times has led to criticism. For example, Coutinho, Dam, andBlustein (2008) went so far as to suggest that “the notion of career is no longer a sufficientlyinclusive conceptual framework, which successfully encapsulates the experiences of work in thelives of the majority of people in the world today” (p. 12). Moreover, Savickas (1995) questionedthe degree to which modern theories can address the needs of a post-modern world. Others havecalled for the revision of old theory, the creation of post-modern oriented theories of vocational
Holland’s Theory4guidance, or the convergence of multiple, modern theories (e.g., Osipow, 1990; Savickas, 2005;Schultheiss, 2007; Severy, 2008; Young & Valach, 2004). Blustein (2006) noted that trait-andfactor theorists, such as Holland, perpetuate a tendency to focus on the privileged, well-educatedworker. Others have said that RIASEC theory focuses on the parts and not the whole careerdevelopment experience (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1985).While some career scholars and practitioners question the currency of Holland’s theory,Brown (2002) concluded that “ most career development theorists and practitioners areunready to jettison one hundred years of thought and research because of criticism from postmodern thinkers” (p. 513). Moreover, Holland’s contributions remain evident in the literature.Ruff, Reardon, and Bertoch (2008) reported finding over 1,600 citations to Holland’s RIASECtheory and applications in the literature from 1953 to early 2007. These citations werecategorized into multiple groups and their identification of diverse populations was very helpfulin organizing this literature review.Although this article cannot respond to all of the concerns regarding Holland’s theory,literature will be reviewed that is relevant to both the applicability of the structure of theRIASEC model as well as the development of Holland-based assessments in contemporarycultures and contexts for which they were not originally intended. The structure of the RIASECmodel and the assessment of individuals’ Holland types have been discussed and researchedextensively, making these issues two important areas to understand regarding the cross-culturalapplicability of Holland’s theory. Savickas and colleagues (2009) have begun to develop newapproaches to career development to meet the needs of a today’s global economy. They havebegun this development to “avoid the difficulties of creating models and methods in one countryand then trying to export them to other countries” (p. 2). Despite their criticism of Holland’s
Holland’s Theory5theory, they contend “we must not lose sight of those valuable contributions of 20th centurytheories and techniques” (p. 2). Perhaps this comprehensive review of the current internationalapplicability of the RIASEC structure and Holland based instruments will help scholars tounderstand where these 20th century techniques may or may not fit into the 21st century.We will examine the actual evidence of the usefulness of Holland’s theory andapplications such as the Self-Directed Search (SDS; Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1994) fordiverse groups worldwide. The evidence will also help to demonstrate that many culturescontinue to adopt the RIASEC model. The discussion will include a commentary on theapplicability of Holland’s theory in the 21st century with its global economy and rapid change, aswell as some possible directions for future research.Holland’s RIASEC Structural ModelHolland’s theory rests on four basic assumptions that describe how occupational interestsare developed. The first assumption states that individuals can be categorized into Realistic (R),Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C) types. Thesecond assumption asserts that environments (e.g., places of employment) are also categorizedinto these same six types. This third assumption is that individuals tend to choose environmentsthat fit with their personality. The fourth assumption highlights the importance of one’spersonality being congruent with his or her environment. It states that behavior is determined bythe fit between an individual’s personality and the environment by which he or she is surrounded(Holland, 1997).The six RIASEC types are optimally represented by a circular order, also commonlyreferred to as the hexagonal model, and cited throughout this review as the RIASEC model.Holland’s structure of six types into a hexagon is one of the most well replicated findings in the
Holland’s Theory6history of vocational psychology (Rounds, 1995). The six domains are arranged according totheir relative similarity in a hexagonal formation of R-I-A-S-E-C. For example, according toHolland’s theory the Social and Enterprising types, which appear adjacent on the hexagon, aremore alike than the Social and Realistic types which appear opposite from one another on thehexagon.The validity of the RIASEC structure has been extensively studied and critiqued.Holland’s assessment tools are utilized throughout the world, and it is important to understandthe hexagonal structure of the RIASEC model in all countries and cultures in which it is utilized.Although Holland’s system has been subjected to more empirical tests than any other vocationaltheory it still remains in the early phases of cross-cultural research (Spokane & Cruza-Guet,2005). In countries other than the U.S., circumstances exist that may change the wayoccupational choice or the development of occupational interests evolve, including highunemployment rates, socioeconomic factors, collectivist cultures, school-to-work transition,feudal system, agrarian economy, and utilitarian values (e.g., Leong, Austin, Sekaran, &Komarraju, 1998; Long, Adams, & Tracey, 2005; Stead & Watson, 1998). Therefore, in theglobal economy different occupations are available with different distributions of the six types(Leong et al., 1998).In addition, educational systems in other countries can vary greatly from the structure inplace in the United States which was the context for Holland’s theoretical and practical work.For example in China, college entrants must declare a major upon entrance and even prior to thatmust narrow potential majors into one of two tracks, science/technology and humanity/socialscience (Tang, 2001). High school students are required to decide prior to entrance exams, as the
Holland’s Theory7exams differentiate majors falling into the two tracks. Similar early decisions about career tracksare seen in other countries (e.g., Šverko & Babarovic, 2006; Tak, 2004).In the following section, we explore literature as it pertains to the understanding of thehexagonal model outside the U.S. by first describing some of the conceptual models that useHolland’s theory, examining the findings of a highly relevant meta-analysis (Rounds & Tracey,1996), and reviewing relevant literature not included in the Rounds and Tracey meta-analysis.Seven Holland-Related Models for the Structure of Vocational InterestsHolland’s RIASEC model has been elaborated in terms of a circular order hypothesis anda circumplex hypothesis. This was further elaborated in a schema by Prediger (1982), followedby a spherical model of interests posed by Tracey & Rounds (1995). We will elaborate on theHolland, Prediger, Tracey and Rounds, and partition models in the following paragraphs with acomment on cross cultural implications for each.Two major structural hypotheses of Holland’s model identified in the literature are (a) thecircular order hypothesis and (b) the circumplex hypothesis (Rounds, Tracey, & Hubert, 1992).The circular order hypothesis is based on the idea that the inter-point distances for the six typesare “inversely proportional to the theoretical relationships between them” (Holland, 1973, 1985,p. 5). In other words, adjacent types (e.g., RI, IA, AS, SE) should have a larger correlation thanother correlations, and correlations between opposite types (e.g., RS, IE, AC) will be smallerthan all others. This circular order structure has been supported in various contexts and hasformed the basis of some of the most widely used vocational interest assessments, many ofwhich are mentioned in the assessment portion of this article (e.g., Strong Interest Inventory;Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994; Self-Directed Search; Holland, Fritzsche, &Powell, 1994). Rounds et al. (1992) suggest that the underlying structure of the circular ordering
Holland’s Theory8of types is a circumplex. Similar to the circular order hypothesis, the circumplex hypothesisholds the same predictions for the relationships between types but adds that the correlationsbetween each of the adjacent types will be equal, the correlations between each of the alternatetypes will be equal, and the correlations between each of the opposite types will be equal.There have been mixed results regarding support for the circular structure of the RIASECmodel across cultures. Some have proposed alternative models to explain interests that are notaligned with Holland’s theory (Prediger, 1982; Tracey & Rounds, 1995). Rounds and Tracey(1996) used a meta-analysis to examine the cross cultural applicability of Holland’s hexagonalstructure.Another method for representing the circumplex model is Prediger’s (1982) twodimensional schema of vocational interests, which is an additional way to view Holland’sRIASEC hexagon. Prediger asserted that the hexagon is a multidimensional model which can bebetter represented using two bipolar dimensions. The two dimensions are labeled people-thingsand ideas-data.Finally, as an extension of this model, Tracey and Rounds (1995) proposed a thirddimension of vocational interests which they labeled prestige. They suggested that vocationalinterests are better represented by a sphere rather than a circle and unlike the hexagonal model,types on the spherical model are not of equal distance from their neighboring types.For example, Liu and Rounds (2003) found in mainland China that the distances betweenthe Realistic and Conventional types and Investigative and Artistic types were greater than otherdistances and proposed an octant model. This implies that RIASEC types are located on a circleat points in an octant model but with two empty spaces on the model, between R and C and alsobetween I and A, for unspecified types.
Holland’s Theory9Two variations on Holland’s RIASEC scheme for organizing interests involvepartitioning groups of interests in alternative arrangements. Gati (1979, 1982, 1991) proposed ahierarchical model of interests as an alternative to Holland’s model, and suggested a three-groupmodel partitioning interest domains as follows: R-I, A-S, and E-C. Gati’s model predicts that thecorrelations between RIASEC types within a single category (e.g., R and I) are greater than thecorrelations between pairs of RIASEC types outside of the category (e.g., R and A). Rounds andTracey (1996) noted problems inherent in both Holland and Gati’s model based on themagnitude of relation of the A and S types, so they formulated an alternative three-grouppartition model similar to Gati’s model which put A in its own category and S was added to theE-C category.These three models, Holland’s (1985) circular order model, Gati’s (1982) three-grouppartition, and the Rounds and Tracey (1996) alternative three-class partition model wereincluded in Rounds and Tracey’s 1996 meta-analysis. These models were examined forstructural equivalence across cultures and were based on the literature from 1970 to 1992.Rounds and Tracey examined the fit of these models using 96 international matrices from 19countries including Australia, Brazil, Canada, Columbia, France, Guyana, Iceland, Indonesia,Israel, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Portugal,Taiwan, 20 United States ethnic matrices, and a benchmark sample of 73 United States matrices.They found that researchers varied in their methods for evaluating RIASEC structure innon-U.S. samples but most used one of the following: U.S. RIASEC measures, adaptation ofU.S. RIASEC inventories, theory-constructed RIASEC measures, and translated U.S. RIASECmeasures. Using Hubert and Arabie’s (1987) randomization, they found that regardless of theassessment method used when studying Holland’s model in other countries, the cross-culture
Holland’s Theory10structural equivalence of Holland’s circular order model was not supported. Additionally, theyfound that Gati’s model and their alternative model (Rounds & Tracey, 1996) fit the internationaldata well and both fit significantly better than Holland’s circular order model.As the literature reveals, there have been numerous models posed to explain the structureof interest which are based on Holland’s original RIASEC structure. As the review of theliterature demonstrates, these various models have also been found to be of varying use indifferent cultures. The finding of the 1996 meta-analysis was not very encouraging regarding theuse of Holland’s traditional RIASEC model outside the U.S. Yet, research not included in theRounds and Tracey (1996) study is mixed but somewhat more promising. We now examine theresearch not included in their 1996 meta-analysis that has sought to explain the structure ofvocational interests globally.The Structure of Vocational Interests in Non U.S. SamplesSince Rounds and Tracey’s (1996) meta-analysis, many studies have explored the natureof the RIASEC model. Specific studies that evaluated the applicability of it in various culturesand settings from 1996 to March 2008 are examined in the following sections. The current statusof the RIASEC model in Africa, Asia, Europe, and South America is presented. Table 1 providesa complete list of the applicability of each model by country as well as the characteristics of thesample and the measures used. The information in Table 1 is limited by practical space concerns,researchers’ multiple approaches, and researchers’ use of various Holland-based assessmenttools. Because this is a literature review and the authors were not limited by the statisticalconstraints of a meta-analysis, we chose to present all of the information reviewed for a morecomprehensive summary of the literature.
Holland’s t Table 1: Source, Sample Characteristics, Inventory,Inventory Language, and Fit of Model to Data by Country -----------------------------------------Africa. We found one study that sampled participants in Africa. In 2002, du Toit and deBruin tested the validity of Holland’s circular order model for black South African students usingthe South African version of the Self-Directed Search. The results indicated that the structuralvalidity of Holland’s circular order model of personality types was not supported in this SouthAfrican population. The authors argued that because black South Africans value collectivism, avalue that is contradictory to that of many Western societies, it is possible that this value affectsvocational interests. They also noted that the unemployment rate in this population wasextremely high and that participants may have endorsed several interests on the SDS with thehope of increasing their odds for gaining employment. It is also important to note that the SDSwas in English, a second language for many of them. Only minimal research is available on theRIASEC structure in Africa and more research is needed to understand its possible usefulness inthis complex and diverse region.Asia. Outside of mainland China, researchers have examined Holland’s model withvarious groups. Using a sample of 1,813 Hong Kong college students, Farh, Leong, and Law(1998) investigated the validity of Holland’s hexagon model using the unisex edition of the ACTInterest Inventory (UNIACT). They found that the Hong Kong data did not support thecircumplex model of vocational interests but did support the circular order relationship.Holland’s circular order model fit the sample well, although not as well as it is typically foundwith a U.S. sample. They found that individuals who have more traditional Chinese values are
Holland’s Theory12less likely to pursue careers that are in line with Holland’s theory than individuals who have lesstraditional Chinese values.Similarly, Soh and Leong (2001) studied the structural validity of the RIASEC model inEastern Asia by comparing a sample of 184 students in Singapore to 180 students in the Unit
Holland’s theory, examining the findings of a highly relevant meta-analysis (Rounds & Tracey, 1996), and reviewing relevant literature not included in the Rounds and Tracey meta-analysis. Seven Holland-Related Models for the Structure of Vocational Interests Holland’s RIASEC model has been elaborated in terms of a circular order hypothesis and
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