What Is A Chordate? Members Of The Phylum Chordata Are .

30-1 The ChordatesForm and Function in AmphibiansThe amphibian heart has three separate chambers: left atrium right atrium ventricleFromBodyTo body,lungsand skinTo body, Fromlungs and LungsskinSlide32 of 25Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

30-1 The ChordatesForm and Function in AmphibiansExcretion Amphibians have kidneys that filter wastes fromthe blood. Urine travels through tubes called ureters into thecloaca. Urine is then passed directly to the outside, ortemporarily stored in a small urinary bladder justabove the cloaca.Slide33 of 25Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

30-1 The ChordatesForm and Function in AmphibiansReproduction In most species of amphibians, the female layseggs in water, then the male fertilizes themexternally. In a few species, including most salamanders,eggs are fertilized internally. After fertilization, frog eggs are encased in asticky, transparent jelly.Slide34 of 25Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

30-1 The ChordatesForm and Function in AmphibiansMovement Amphibian larvae move by wiggling their bodiesand using a flattened tail for propulsion. Adult salamanders walk or run. Frogs and toads, have well-developed hind limbsthat enable them to jump long distances.Response Amphibians have well-developed nervous andsensory systems.Slide35 of 25Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

30-1 The ChordatesForm and Function in Amphibians An amphibian's eyes are protected from damageand kept moist by a transparent nictitatingmembrane. This membrane is located inside the regulareyelid and can be closed over the eye. Amphibians hear through tympanicmembranes, or eardrums, located on each sideof the head. Many amphibian larvae and adults have lateralline systems that detect water movement.Slide36 of 25Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

30-1 The ChordatesGroups of AmphibiansGroups of AmphibiansThe three groups of amphibians alive today are: Salamanders frogs and toads caeciliansSlide37 of 25Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesClass ReptileWhat Is a Reptile?A reptile is a vertebrate that has dry, scaly skin,lungs, and terrestrial eggs with severalmembranes.These characteristics enable reptiles to live their entirelives out of water.Scaly, dry skin prevents the loss of body water in dryenvironments – must be shed as it grows.Slide38 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesEvolution of ReptilesEvolution of ReptilesReptiles were the first vertebrates that were notdependent on water for reproduction.The first reptile fossil dates back to theCarboniferous Period.Form and Function in ReptilesTough, scaly skin and the ability to control bodytemperature are two adaptations to terrestrial life.Slide39 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesAdaptations that have contributed to thesuccess of reptiles on land are: well-developed lungs a double-loop circulatory system a water-conserving excretory system strong limbs internal fertilization shelled, terrestrial eggsSlide40 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesBody Temperature ControlReptiles are ectotherms.Ectotherms are animals that rely on behavior tocontrol body temperature.To warm up, they bask in the sun or stay underwater at night.To cool down, they move to the shade or takeshelter in underground burrows.Slide41 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesFeedingReptiles eat a wide range of foods.RespirationReptile lungs are spongy, allowing for a larger areaof gas-exchange.Many reptiles have muscles around the ribs thatexpand and collapse the chest cavity.Most reptiles have two lungs, but certain species ofsnakes have just one lung.Slide42 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesCirculationReptiles have a double-loop circulatory system: One loop brings blood to and from the lungs. One loop brings blood to and from the rest of thebody.Reptile hearts have two atria and either one or twoventricles.Most reptiles have one ventricle with a partial septumthat separates oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.Crocodiles and alligators have two atria and twoventricles.Slide43 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in tLungSlide44 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesExcretionUrine is produced in the kidneys. In some reptiles, urine flows in tubes directlyinto a cloaca. In others, a bladder stores urine before it isexpelled.Other reptiles convert ammonia into uric acid.In the cloaca, urine is reduced to crystals of uricacid that form a pasty white solid.By eliminating solid wastes, a reptile canconserve water.Copyright Pearson Prentice HallSlide45 of 50

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesResponseReptilian brains are similar to amphibians.Their cerebrum and cerebellum are moredeveloped than other parts of the brain.Reptiles that are active in the day have complexeyes and see color well.Many snakes also have an extremely good senseof smell.Most reptiles have sensory organs in the mouththat detect chemicals when reptiles flick theirtongues.Slide46 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesReptiles have simple ears with an external eardrumand a single bone that conducts sound to the innerear.Snakes can also pick up vibrations in the groundthrough bones in their skulls.Some snakes can detect the body heat of their prey.Movement Reptiles with legs have large strong limbs.Some have legs that are rotated further underthe body, enabling them to carry more bodyweight.Copyright Pearson Prentice HallSlide47 of 50

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesThe legs and feet of many aquatic turtles havedeveloped into flippers.Reptiles’ backbones help accomplish much of theirmovement.Reproduction Most reptiles are oviparous, laying eggs thatdevelop outside the mother’s body. All reptiles reproduce by internal fertilization, inwhich the male deposits sperm inside thefemale’s cloaca.Slide48 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function in ReptilesAfter fertilization, the female’s reproductive systemcovers the embryo with several membranes and aleathery shell.The shell and membranes protect the embryo andprevent the egg from drying out.This type of egg, an amniotic egg, is one of themost important adaptations to life on land.An amniotic egg has four membranes—theamnion, the yolk sac, the chorion, and theallantois.Slide49 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesGroups of ReptilesGroups of ReptilesThe four surviving groups of reptiles are: lizards and snakes crocodilians turtles and tortoises tuatarasSlide50 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesClass “Aves” - BirdsWhat Is a Bird?Birds are reptilelike animals that maintain aconstant internal body temperature.Birds have an outer covering of feathers; two legsthat are covered with scales and are used forwalking or perching; and front limbs modified intowings.Feathers separate birds from all other living animals.Feathers are made mostly of protein and developfrom pits in the birds' skin.Slide51 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesWhat Is a Bird?Feathers help birds fly and also keep them warm.The two main types of feathers are contour and down.Contour feather: Contourfeathers provide the lifting forceand balance needed for flight.Down feather: Downfeathers trap air close to thebody and keep the bird warm.Copyright Pearson Prentice HallBarbule: The hooks oneach barbule fit together,holding them flat.Slide52 of 50

31-1 ReptilesEvolution of BirdsEvolution of BirdsPaleontologists agree that birds evolved fromextinct reptiles. Embryos of birds and reptiles develop withinamniotic eggs. Both excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid. Bones that support the limbs, and otherskeleton parts, are similar in both groups.Slide53 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesEvolution of BirdsEvolution of BirdsDinosaursModern reptilesModern a(bird-hippeddinosaurs)ArchaeopteryxAncestor ofdinosaursReptile ancestorCopyright Pearson Prentice HallSlide54 of 50

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightForm, Function, and FlightBirds have a number of adaptations that enablethem to fly, including:highly efficient digestive, respiratory, andcirculatory systemsaerodynamic feathers and wingsstrong, lightweight bonesstrong chest musclesSlide55 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightBody Temperature ControlBirds generate their own body heat and are calledendotherms.Endotherms have a high rate of metabolism.Metabolism produces heat.Feathers insulate a bird enough to conserve mostof its metabolic energy, allowing it to keep warm.Birds need to eat a lot of food to produce the heatenergy they need to maintain metabolism.Slide56 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightFeedingBirds’ beaks, or bills, are adapted to the type offood they eat.Insect-eating birds have short, fine bills thatpick ants and insects off leaves and branches,or can catch flying insects.Seed-eaters have short, thick bills.Carnivorous birds shred their prey with stronghooked bills.Slide57 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightMost birds have a crop - a structure at thelower end of the esophagus in which food isstored and moistened.Birds that eat meat or fish have anexpandable area in which large amounts ofsoft food can be stored.Birds that eat insects or seeds have amuscular organ called the gizzard that helpsin the mechanical breakdown of food.Slide58 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightRespirationBirds have a highly-efficient way of taking inoxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide.Air enters air sacs.It flows through the lungs where gas exchangetakes place – in one direction.constantly exposes the lungs to oxygen-rich air.maintains a high metabolic rate.provides efficient extraction of oxygen, whichenables birds to fly at high altitudes where the airis thin.Copyright Pearson Prentice HallSlide59 of 50

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightCirculationBirds have four-chambered hearts and twocirculatory loops.There is complete separation of oxygen-rich andoxygen-poor blood.Oxygen-poor blood from the body is pumped to thelungs.Oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs and ispumped to the rest of the body.Slide60 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightExcretionExcretion in birds is similar to that of most livingreptiles.Nitrogenous wastes are removed from the bloodby the kidneys, converted to uric acid, anddeposited in the cloaca.Most of the water is reabsorbed, leaving uric acidcrystals in a white, pasty form.ResponseBirds have well-developed sense organs, whichare adaptations that enable them to coordinate theSlidemovements required for flight.61 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightBirds’ brains can quickly interpret and respondto signals.The cerebrum controls behavior and is large.The cerebellum coordinates the movement of thewings and legs; it is larger in birds than in reptiles.Birds have well-developed eyes which allow them tosee color very well.Most bird species can hear quite well.Taste and smell are not well developed in most birds.Slide62 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightMovementSome birds, such as ostriches and penguinscannot fly.Most birds, however, can fly.The skeletal and muscular systems of flying birdsexhibit adaptations that enable flight.Bones are thinner than those of Reptiles.Large breast muscles allow for powerful wingcontrol.Slide63 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm, Function, and FlightReproductionBoth male and female reproductive tracts open intothe cloaca.Mating birds press their cloacas together totransfer sperm from male to female.Some male birds have a penisBird lay amniotic eggs that have hard outer shells.Most birds incubate their eggs until the eggs hatch.Slide64 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesGroups of BirdsGroups of BirdsThere are nearly 30 different orders of birds.The largest order of birds is the passerines, orperching birds.Other groups of birds include: pelicans, parrots,birds of prey, cavity-nesting birds, herons, andostriches.Slide65 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesClass MammaliaAll mammals have two notable features: hair and mammaryglands.In females, mammary glands produce milk to nourish theyoung.In addition to having hair and the ability to nourishtheir young with milk, all mammals:breathe air.have four-chambered hearts.are endotherms that generate their body heat internally.Slide66 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesEvolution of MammalsEvolution of MammalsMammalian fossils are characterized by a lower jaw with alarge, teeth-bearing bone connected directly to the skull bya joint, and distinctive features of the limbs and thebackbone.The first true mammals appeared during the late TriassicPeriod, about 220 million years ago.These mammals were very small and probably nocturnal.There are now 19 mammal orders (including Artiodactyla,Carnivora, Chiroptera, Marsupialia, Primates etc)- 10 of these orders exist in North AmericaSlide67 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsForm and Function in MammalsThe mammalian body has adapted in varied ways to agreat many habitats.Body Temperature ControlMammals are endotherms.A high rate of metabolism helps mammals generate bodyheat.Mammals have external body hair that helps them keepwarm.Subcutaneous fat, which is a layer of fat located beneaththe skin, also helps conserve body heat.Slide68 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsMany mammals have sweat glands that help coolthe body.If its body temperature gets too high, the mammalsweats.Evaporation of sweat then cools the body.Some mammals pant to cool down.These are examples of homeostatic mechanismsFeedingBecause of its high metabolic rate, a mammalmust eat a lot of food to maintain homeostasis.Copyright Pearson Prentice HallSlide69 of 50

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsA mammal’s digestive tract breaks down andabsorbs the type of food that it eats.Carnivores have a short intestine because enzymesquickly digest meat.Herbivores have a longer intestine because tough,fibrous plant tissues take longer to digest.RespirationAll mammals use lungs to breathe.A diaphragm is a large, flat muscle at the bottomof a mammal’s chest cavity that helps in breathing.70 Slideof 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsWhen an animal inhales, chest muscles lift the rib cage upand out. The diaphragm pulls the chest cavity down.The combined actions of the chest muscles and diaphragmincrease the volume of the chest cavity.The increase in volume pulls air into the lungs.When an animal exhales, chest muscles lower therib cage. The diaphragm relaxes, and the volume ofthe chest cavity decreases.Air is then pushed out of the lungs.Slide71 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsCirculationThe mammalian circulatory system has two loopsand a four-chambered heart.The right side of the heart receives oxygen-poorblood from the body and pumps it to the lungs.The left side receives oxygen-rich blood from thelungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.Slide72 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsExcretionKidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from the bloodin the form of urea.Urea, other wastes, and water combine to formurine.From the kidneys, urine flows to a urinary bladder,where it is stored until it is eliminated.The kidneys of mammals help maintainhomeostasis by filtering urea from the blood, aswell as by excreting excess water or retainingneeded water – allowing them to live in toughhabitatsCopyright Pearson Prentice HallSlide73 of 50

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsResponseMammals have well-developed brains with threemain parts: cerebrum—controls thinking and learning cerebellum—controls muscular coordination medulla oblongata—regulates involuntary bodyfunctionsSlide74 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsThe cerebrum has a well-developed outer layercalled the cerebral cortex, which is the center ofthinking and other complex behaviors.Some behaviors, such as reading, are possible onlywith the human cerebral cortex.Mammals other than humans also exhibit complexbehaviors.Mammals rely on highly developed senses (smelland hearing) to detect and respond to stimuli fromtheir external environment.Slide75 of 50Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsAll mammalian ears have the same basic parts, butthey differ in their ability to detect sound.Dogs, bats, and dolphins detect sounds at higherfrequencies than humans can.Elephants detect sounds at much lowerfrequencies.The ability to distinguish colors varies amongspecies.Color vision is most useful to animals that areactive during the day.Copyright Pearson Prentice HallSlide76 of 50

31-1 ReptilesForm and Function inMammalsChemical ControlsMammals have endocrine glands that regulatebody activities by releasing hormones.Hormones are substances produced in one part ofan organism that affect another part of the sameorganism.Hormones

Nonvertebrate Chordates The two groups of nonvertebrate chordates are tunicates and lancelets. Nonvertebrate Chordates Similarities in anatomy and embryological development indicate that vertebrates and nonvertebrate chordates evolved from a common ancestor. Both tunicates and lancelets are soft-bod