BIBLICAL - S7d9.scene7

S E E R E L AT E D B I B L E S T U D Y R E S O U R C E S :www.GospelProject.com www.BibleStudiesForLife.com www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible53 Sandals and Shoesby Shawn L. BuiceDecember 27 // Session 456 Death of the Firstbornby R. Raymond LloydDecember 27 // Session 326 The Judean Wildernessby Roy E. Lucas, Jr.December 27 // Session 438 Chariots: Their Development and Useby Terry W. EddingerJanuary 3 // Session 430 “Please Don’t Send Me to Prison!”by Gerald L. StevensJanuary 10 // Session 615 The Route of the Exodus:Don’t Go by the Way of the Philistinesby Stephen J. AndrewsJanuary 10 // Session 576 Judicial Courts in the First Centuryby Jeff S. AndersonJanuary 17 // Session 7634 Capernaum in Jesus’ Dayby David M. WallaceJanuary 31 // Session 9The 10 Words and Ancient Near Eastern Lawsby Gary P. ArbinoJanuary 24 // Session 167 The Sons of Aaronby Tom GoodmanFebruary 14 // Session 470 Jesus’ Words of Woeby Robert A. WeathersFebruary 14 // Session 11InSites: Music in the BibleFebruary 14 // Session 463 Agriculture and Farming in Ancient Israelby Mark R. DunnFebruary 28 // Session 1322 Clean and Unclean: The Archaeological Evidenceby Joel F. Drinkard, Jr.February 21 // Session 5THE GOSPEL PROJECT73 Blessing and Cursing:An Old Testament Understandingby Robert C. DunstonFebruary 28 // Session 689 The Reign of Pharaohby Dorman LairdDecember 6 // Session 17049WINTER 2015-16 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR5

TGP: Exodus 19:1-6; 20:1-1110TheWORDSand Ancient Near Eastern Laws6 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2015-16

TopicsBiblical regulations and otherancient Near Eastern codes covermany of the same topics—personal injury, sexual relationships andrape, kidnapping, slavery, restitution, inheritance, livestock, boundaries, and construction. Others,however, are not in the Torah: loyalty to king and temple, taxation,commerce, wages, fugitives, andthe like.The Ten Words (more commonlycalled “the Ten Commandments”)address some major issues commonwithin the ancient Near East—loyalty, family structure and honor,Left: Mount Sinai,which the localsrefer to as JebelMusa (meaning“Mountain ofMoses”).Above: Evidence oflingering influence,dated to about1,100 years afterHammurabi’s original, a fragment ofa copy of the Codeof Hammurabifrom the libraryof Assyria’s KingAssurbanipal. Thecode served asa literary modelfor the schools ofscribes who copiedit through the centuries.Right: Dioritebust from Susa;thought to beeither Hammurabior a prince whoreigned beforehim.ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ G.B. HOWELL/LOUVRE MUSEUM (35/19/27)ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MIKE RUTHERFORD (59/1120)The precedents for this case stemfrom the Code of Hammurabi,inscribed about 50 years earlier.Stipulations concerning false testimony and marital accusations arealso in the Old Testament Law,the Torah (Ex. 20:16; Deut. 22:13‑21).How does ancient Near Easternlaw compare to biblical Law,especially those instructions inExodus 20:1‑17—the “Ten Words”?2RE MUSEUM (35/18/77). . . and they did not convictAma-sukkal [the woman] ofspeaking insolently againstEnlil-issu; they did, however,convict Enlil-issu of slanderingand abusing her. ThereuponEnlil-issu spoke as follows,saying: “You may convict me(even) more than now, (still)I will not marry her. Let themimprison me and (then) I willpay money (instead).”1TextsWhat scholars term “laws” in theancient Near East actually fall within several types of literature: lawcodes, edicts, treaties, loyalty oaths,and charters for kingship succession. Currently, around 100 of theseofficial documents have been excavated and translated.4 While 30 orso originated in Mesopotamia andNorthern Syria between the years2500 b.c. and 1500 b.c., over halfcome from the Hittite archivesof Anatolia (1500–1200 b.c.).5 Theremaining texts stem from themid-first millennium: NorthernSyria (3 documents; ca. 850 b.c.),theNeo-AssyrianEmpireG.B. HOWELL/ LOUVAROUND 1700 b.c., anancientBabylonianman accused his fiancée. Archaeologists haveunearthed the record ofthe court proceedings:homicide, adultery, theft, perjury,slander, and possibly inappropriate desires. On the other hand,they contain some unique content:loyalty to one God (rather than theking and his divinity or divinities),no idols (a completely unique concept in the ancient world), and theradical proposal of a rest day everyseven days (rather than workinguntil the next festival).Within this broad range of topics, however, ancient text writersmade no effort to be comprehensive.3 Correspondingly, the prescriptions in the Torah also do notspecifically address all aspects ofancient Israelite life.ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/B Y G A R Y P. A R B I N OWINTER 2015-16 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR7

Left: Ruins at theancient site ofAleppo, in modernSyria.Below: The“Aleppo Treaty”is an agreementbetween the Hittiteking Mursili II andTalmi-sharrumaof Aleppo. Itregulates futurerelations betweenAleppo and Hatti;dated to 1300 B.C.ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/LOUISE KOHL SMITH (33/4/17)THE “TEN WORDS”?M(about 14 documents, most arefragmentary; dated 820–627 b.c.),and Neo-Babylonia (1 document;ca. 700 b.c.). Archaeologists andexplorers have also discovered hundreds of ancient letters, narratives,and records—including the onequoted above—that illustrate lawusage from the ancient world.PurposeConcern for relationships and seeking to define and govern conductwere the threads connecting theseancient laws. Broadly seen, theserelationships are either external,meaning between a king and thepeople of another land (these calledfor treaties), or internal, meaningto and/or among the subjects of aking (these called for codes).8 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2015-16The foundational relationship waswith the king. Most texts containan Introduction—naming the king,often with his titles, divine selection,attributes, and achievements. Thesewere often in first person: “I amHammurabi, the shepherd, selectedby the god Enlil.”6 Always peopleunderstood the king to be the giver ofthe “law,” albeit under the directionand charge of his patron deity or deities. The origin of the Ten Words isquite different. Unlike other ancientdocuments, the narrative context ofExodus 19–21 clearly shows that Godpersonally and vocally gave to theassembled people the initial regulations for conduct: “And God spokeall these words” (Ex. 20:1; Deut. 5:4).After the initial Ten Words, Godused an intermediary (Moses) forILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/9/95)ost people commonly use the phrase “Ten Commandments”to describe the pronouncements in Exodus 20:1‑17. The text,however, does not refer to them as “commandments”—and theyare not numbered. Instead, the literal translation of the Hebrew textdescribes them as the very “words” of God.Referring to the contents of the second (meaning replacement) twotablets, the literal translation is, “the words of the covenant, the tenwords” (Ex. 34:28). This follows a set of worship regulations, including three of the ones in Exodus 20—allegiance to Yahweh (“no othergods”), prohibition against idolatry, and Sabbath observance. The onlyother places the phrase “Ten Words” occurs is in Deuteronomy 4:13and 10:4, each of which designates the contents of the tablets.most of the rest of the divine instruction (Ex. 21:1; 34:1-28), but even herethe narrative presents these stipulations as products of the Divine Mindrather than simply Moses’ rulings.The chief responsibility of ancientkings was to maintain justice—theright relationships within the kingdom and between treaty partners.Standard in ancient legal presentations was the king’s statement that hehad established justice. “At that time,I, Ur-Namma, . . . king of the lands ofSumer and Akkad, by the might ofthe god Nanna . . . I established justice in the land.”7 So essential wasthis responsibility that ancient kingsintentionally depicted themselves presiding over cases. Hammurabi stated:“I have inscribed my precious pronouncements upon my stela and set

it up. . . . the judgments that I renderedand the verdicts that I gave.”8 Ancientlaw documents that scholars term“codes” were thus meant to be seenas the concretized specific case rulingsthat the king made and that he gathered together. These served as both amodel for later cases as well as proofof the king’s justice. Moses and hiscolleagues also rendered verdicts thatwere likely codified (Ex. 18:13-26; 21:1).FormThe presentation of these codified verdicts is overwhelmingly inthe form known as “casuistic” or“case law”: If such happens . . . thenthis is the consequence.9 The OldBabylonia Laws of Eshnunna(ca. 1725 b.c.) provide an example:“If an ox gores another ox and thuscauses its death, the two ox-ownersshall divide the value of the living ox and the carcass of the deadox. . . . If it gores a slave and thuscauses his death, he [the ox owner]shall weigh and deliver 15 shekelsof silver.”10Ancient treaties also frequentlyutilized this genre for the stipulationsby which each party was to abide.A North Syrian treaty provided aBelow: Law codediscovered atGortyn on theIsland of Cretedates to first halfof the 5th cent.B.C. and is theearliest knownEuropean law code.It refers, though,to earlier laws. Thelines are a boustrophedon (translated“as the ox plows”)text, meaningevery other linealternates—oneread right to leftand the next, leftto right.Left: The LawCode of Gortynis housed in thebuilding behind theodium, partiallyreconstructed.ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (28/20/6)ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ GB HOWELL (35/37/63)common obligation: “If a fugitiveslave, whether male or female, fleesfrom my country to yours, you mustseize him and return him.”11Regulations also came in a moreabsolute form, termed “apodictic”:You will do this; you will not do that.Utilized much more commonly intreaties, but present from the earliest times in law codes, these absoluterequirements illustrate the non-negotiables for the two parties involved. AHittite treaty (ca. 1300 b.c.) illustrates:“Keep the oath of the king and thehand of the king, and I, My Majesty,will protect you. . . . Do not turn yourWINTER 2015-16 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR9

ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ MUSEUM OF THE ANCIENT ORIENT/ ISTANBUL (203/21A)eyes towards another (land)!”12 Asseen here, sometimes the absolutenature of the apodictic form camewith a “rider” that gave either a rationale or a result (here “protection”).The Ten Words of Exodus 20 containboth the apodictic form and additionalmaterial in four of them (vv. 4,7,8,12).Both the Covenant Code(20:1–23:33) and the account of Moses’writing the replacement copy of theTen Words (34:10‑26),13 illustrate thatregulations concerning the divinehuman relationship (idolatry, festivals, Sabbaths, and sacrifices) andbroad standards of social justice forat-risk members of the community(22:21‑22; 23:1‑3,6‑9) are in apodicticform. This makes good sense sincethe “vertical” and social justice aspectswould not usually require additionalspecificity—no situations existed inwhich people would allow idolatry orthe abuse of a widow.While the apodictic form of the TenWords in Exodus 20 clearly articulatesLeft: TheUr-Nammu LawCode, which is theoldest known law,is from Nippur,Mesopotamia (inmodern Iraq).The language isSumerian; thepiece dates to2112-2095 B.C.The laws dealwith murder, robbery, kidnapping,divorce, adultery,slave ownership,property transfers,perjury, maimingsomeone else,taxes, and more.Ur-Nammu wasthe founder ofthe Sumerian 3rdDynasty of Ur. Heruled about 2113–2096 B.C. and wasresponsible forbuilding the greatziggurat at Ur andanother at Uruk.the non-negotiables of relationshipsas the people of Yahweh, their placement in the broader context pointsto a larger structure and intent.They begin with an Introduction ofYahweh and a statement of past benefits (20:2) and stand at the front ofa section of mostly casuistic stipulations (21:1–23:19), followed by bothpromised blessings for adherence anddire warnings for failure (23:20‑33)and finally by a ratification ceremony(24:1‑11). In addition, witnesses werepresent (12 pillars, 24:4; and 2 tablets—1 for each party) and a provisionfor deposit (in the ark, in the holy ofholies). Ancient treaties utilized thesestructural elements.14 Importantly,the Ten Words (and what follows) areactually described (34:27‑28; cf. 24:7‑8)as be’rit (Hebrew for “covenant”), aparticular form of a treaty, and (in34:29) as the “tablets of the edut,” aHebrew word that means “witness”or “testimony” or “obligations” and isa cognate of adé, the Akkadian wordAssyrians used to describe treatiesand loyalty oaths.Thus, the Ten Words are muchmore than laws. They function asthe center of relationships—the initial sections of a treaty (covenant)between Yahweh and His people,one in which He is the true andonly Sovereign to whom His subjects owe total allegiance and inwhose territory there is a correct andnon-negotiable standard for humanactions based on divine justice. I10 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2015-161. William Hallo, “The Slandered Bride” in William W.Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, ed., Context of Scripture[COS], vol. 3, Archival Documents from the Biblical World(Boston: Brill, 2003), 269.2. Unless indicated otherwise, all Scripture quotationsare the writer’s translation. For a quick reference of various“legal” terms used in the Old Testament, see Psalm 19:7-9.3. As modern law codes generally attempt to be comprehensive, the term “code” applying to ancient documents isprobably misleading, from our modern perspective.4. See the collections in Martha Roth, ed., Law Collectionsfrom Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, 2nd ed., Writings fromthe Ancient World [WAW], vol. 6 (Atlanta: SBL Press, 1997);Gary Beckman, Hittite Diplomatic Texts, Harry Hoffner, ed.,WAW vol. 7 (SBL Press, 1996); Simo Parpola and KazukoWatanabe, Neo-Assyrian Treaties and Loyalty Oaths, StateArchives of Assyria, vol. 2, (Helsinki, Ger.: Helsinki Univ.Press, 1988); William Hallo and K. Lawson Younger Jr., eds.,COS, vol. 2, Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World,(Boston: Brill, 1997); and Kenneth Kitchen and Paul J. N.Lawrence, Treaty, Law and Covenant in the Ancient NearEast, Parts 1‑3 (Wiesbaden, Ger.: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2012).5. The Late Bronze Age; Moses dates to this period.6. Martha Roth, “The Codes of Hammurabi” in Hallo andYounger, Jr., ed., COS, vol. 2, 336.7. From a 3rd millennium code; Martha Roth, “The Lawsof Ur-Namma (Ur-Nammu)” in Hallo and Younger, Jr., ed.,COS, vol. 2, 411. The quote has been reconstructed here; itis damaged, but the content is clear.8. Roth, Hoffner and Michalowski, WAW, vol. 6, 133.9. Most of the biblical stipulations are in this format; seeespecially Exodus 20:22–23:33, the Covenant Code that follows the Ten Words.10. Roth, Hoffner and Michalowski, WAW, vol. 6, 67.Notice the similarity to the biblical law in Exodus 21:32,35.11. Richard Hess, “The Agreement Between Ir-Addu andNiqmepa” in Hallo and Younger, Jr., ed., COS, vol. 2, 330.12. Notice both the positive and negative absolutes, alsoseen in the Ten Words. I. Singer, “Treaty Between MuršiliAnd Duppi-Tešub” in Hallo and Younger, Jr., ed., COS,vol. 2, 96.13. A summary of Exodus 20–23, with additions.14. These structural elements are: (1) Preamble: identifiesthe parties to the treaty; (2) Historical Prologue: presentspast relationship as the rationale for future allegiance; (3)Stipulations: listing of the obligations; (4) List of Witnesses(usually divine) to the covenant; (5) Deposition andCeremonial Reading; (6) Sanctions: blessings and curses asincentives for obedience. Found throughout second and firstmillennium B.C. documents, they are most fully evidencedin Hittite treaties. Most of these structural elements can bereadily seen in Joshua 24, and in much more lengthy formthroughout the whole Book of Deuteronomy. In attemptingto find all elements of the ancient form, some scholars haveargued that the covenant form that begins in Exodus 20:1actually ends much later—at the end of Leviticus or even theend of Deuteronomy; see Douglas K. Stuart, Exodus, vol. 2 inThe New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman andHolman, 2006), 465-561; and Kenneth Kitchen and Paul J. N.Lawrence: Treaty, Law and Covenant in the Ancient NearEast, Part 3, (Wiesbaden, Ger.: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2012).Gary P. Arbino is the senior fieldarchaeologist of the Tel Gezerexcavations, professor of archaeology and Old Testament interpretation and curator of the MarianEakins Archaeological Collection,and chair of the Biblical StudiesDepartment at Golden Gate BaptistTheological Seminary, Mill Valley,California.

BSFL: Matthew 5:27-32; John 8:2-11By Martha S. BergenAWoman’sStatusin the First CenturyISTOCK PHOTOWINTER 2015-16 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR11

Because of Jesus, women had a meaningful andexpanded place in the first-century world.AWOMAN’S PLACE IN SOCIETY has variedsignificantly throughout history from cultureto culture and generation to generation. As theearly chapters of Genesis reflect, ancient Israelite cultureaffirmed three central beliefs about women. First, allwomen, beginning with Eve, are created in God’s image;second, women are sinners; and third, women are createdas helpers for their husbands (Gen. 2:18, Hebrew ’ezerkenegdo, “helper as his presence”). The woman was likethe man in a way no other creature was, and yet, she wasnot exactly like him. This “not exactly” part is what hashelped to raise the question of place for all women.to follow the Ten Commandments and other moral laws,along with laws governing civil and ceremonial matters.According to Leviticus 13:9, for instance, anyone whocontracted a serious skin disease was required to have thepriest examine him or her. Yet, laws differed in relation tothe genders. For example, laws regarding the priesthood,circumcision, and appearance before the Lord three timesa year applied only to males. Old Testament laws maintained a distinction between the roles men and womenplayed in Hebrew society. Thus, all Old Testament lawsdirected exclusively toward women dealt with the uniqueconcerns associated with their bodies, such as purificationafter menstruating (Hebrew niddah, menstrual impurity;see Lev. 15:19; 2 Sam. 11:2‑4). To the Jews, the symbolicsignificance of washing resembled holiness; thus, a cleanbody reflected a clean soul. Though early Jewish literaturegave no explicit details on ritual washings related to themenstrual cycle, it assumed a natural connection.1Jewish laws were implemented during Moses’ time, butgenerally they were still applicable to Jews approximately1,400 years later as evidenced in the New Testament.Israelite law, for example, required a woman to presenta purification offering to the priest in order to becomeceremonially clean after childbirth. We know that Mary,Jesus’ mother, observed this Levitical law, and, becauseshe was unable to afford the accompanying sacrificiallamb, she offered the substitute pair of turtledoves oryoung pigeons (Lev. 12; Luke 2:22‑24).In Israelite CultureWithin ancient Hebrew society, Torah laws were binding forboth men and women. Women, just as men, were obligatedIt was the homeof Mary, Martha,and Lazarus,and where Jesusspent much ofHis time while inJerusalem.Below: Smallperfume bottles,unguentaria, common in Greek andRoman societies;these date to the1st–2nd cent. A.D.ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/13/49)Page 11: A 19thcent. engraving; the villageof Bethany onthe southeastern slope of theMount of Olives.12 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2015-16Social

Life curriculum, the Explore the Bible curriculum, and The Gospel Project curriculum." Please don't get me wrong. Biblical Illustrator DOES do this—and does so with excellence! Our writ-ers do a great job of exploring and unpacking the Scripture text and tying it to the Bible study lesson. They show us historical