An Analysis Of Lexical Collocation Errors In Students' Writing
e-ISSN: 2747-005 Volume 2, No. 1, lceAN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL COLLOCATION ERRORS INSTUDENTS’ WRITINGI Gede Widi HartaSMAN 2 Toili Barat, Central Sulawesi, Indonesiawidiharta99@gmail.comIndri Wirahmi BayDepartment of English Education, Faculty of Letters and Culture,Universitas Negeri Gorontalo, Indonesiaindriwirahmi@ung.ac.idSri Widyarti Ali*Department of English Education, Faculty of Letters and Culture,Universitas Negeri Gorontalo, Indonesiawidyartiali@ung.ac.idReceived: 20-02-2021Accepted: 25-10-2021Published: 29-11-2021Abstract: Mastering lexical collocation uses in learning English as a foreign language is absolutely essential todevelop students’ communicative skills and linguistic abilities. Most students, however, have problems withputting words together in a characteristic of “natural” English native speaker-like manner during writing. Studentstend to use strange lexical collocation expressions therefore students’ language production does not sound naturaland carries imprecise meaning. With regard to this underlying issue, the main emphasis of the current study waslying on the investigation of the types and the causes of lexical collocation error committed by EFL students intheir argumentative writing. Through a qualitative research approach applying a descriptive-analytic method,sixteen university students were chosen purposively. The data were collected from two principal sources i.e.,students’ writing samples and semi-structured interviews. In terms of data analysis technique, this study employedan error analysis technique developed by Ellis (1994) to analyze the obtained lexical collocation errors andapplied a content analysis technique provided by Kumar (2011) to analyze the interview results. The studyrevealed 54 erroneousness of lexical collocation production consisting of verb noun/pronoun (PP), adjective noun, adverb adjective, noun noun, and verb adverb combination. These errors were caused by a lack ofcollocation competence, native language influence, the use of synonym, overgeneralization, and approximation.Keywords: error analysis; content analysis; lexical collocation errorINTRODUCTIONIn writing academic essays, students need tohave a good vocabulary capacity to aid them inwriting the essay. It is such an essential thingbecause, without sufficient English vocabularyknowledge, students will not be able tounderstand people’s expressions both in writtenand spoken production. Moreover, they will havedifficulty writing their ideas into good sentencesby using proper words. As a foreign learner ofEnglish, students are urged to understand therelationship of each word used in their writingbecause knowing a word means knowing thetype of relations both its collocation and itsrelative. This is to learn how words are boundwith each other in terms of both paradigmaticand syntagmatic nature (Viera, 2017)Therefore, having in-depth collocationknowledge will contribute to producing agood style of academic writing and othertypes of writing. The use of correct lexicalcollocation will make the sentence meaningof the essay sound more natural,understandable, and academic. Thus,mastering English collocation enables EFLstudents to use correct expressions or to say*Corresponding Author:widyartiali@ung.ac.id 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASA
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llcesomething in different ways, and to assiststudents in realizing the language chunks used byEnglish native speakers both in speaking andwriting. On the other hand, the improper use oflexical collocation in academic writing willresult in an unnatural writing, can causemisunderstanding for readers, and can reduce theacademic value of the students’ writing.In light of the above discussion, this recentstudy focuses on investigating the erroneousnessof lexical collocation in students’ argumentativeessays. An argumentative essay is considered asthe research object of this study because it is oneof the subjects in Universitas Negeri Gorontalo,specifically in the Department of EnglishEducation curriculum. This can be inferred thatstudents of the English Department have studiedhow to write an argumentative essay properly. Itis often incorporated in academic essays as theessay requires the students to use academicwords, advanced grammar as well as to presentpowerful arguments, evidence, and logicalreasons. At this point, the English Departmentstudents must have been required to useacademic words, proper punctuations, andappropriate grammatical and lexical collocationsin writing the essay. However, based on personalcommunication with two writing lecturers inUniversitas Negeri Gorontalo, Faculty of Lettersand Culture, Department of English Education;they inform that English Department studentsfrequently use baby words, formulateungrammatical sentences, and make incorrectpunctuation as well in their writing (Abid & N.R. Usu, personal communication, September26th - October 2nd, 2019). This is worsened bythe issue of the erroneous use of grammatical andlexical collocation in students’ writing.Therefore, students’ style of writing is stillinfluenced by their native language (NL) i.e.,Indonesian Language, the less profoundknowledge related to the mastery of lexicalcollocation, and other parts of grammar. This isrevealed from several examples of errors in theuse of lexical collocations that have been foundin students' academic writings, such as the use ofthe phrase "make an effort" which is oftenwritten as "do an effort", "have an experience"which is more often written as "Make anexperience, or "heavy rain" which is writtenas "Thick rain or hard rain". Meanwhile,errors in the use of lexical collocations can beovercome by reading lots of Englishreferences, practicing using the correctlexical collocations, and using the correctlexical collocations continuously in oral andwritten communication.The study of lexical collocation hasbeen conducted by many researchers in thepast few decades. The first previous studywas by Martelli (2004) about a study ofEnglish lexical collocations written by Italianadvanced students. Martelli’s study aimed toexamine the errors of the learners inproducing word combinations. Those lexicalcollocation errors were quantitatively andqualitatively analyzed by using the theory ofBahns and Eldaw (1993). There were 30essays analyzed which were taken from theItalian university students’ essays. Itconsisted of 20,000 words for each essay. Thestudy revealed 102 collocation errors in theessay. From those results, there were noadverb verb collocations found, 6 werecollocations in which the entire expression isinvolved, 50 were adjective nouncollocations, and 46 were verb nouncollocations. In conclusion, the study showedthat the influence of students’ L1, structuralproperties, and degree of fixedness of wrongcollocations contributed to making errors oflexical collocation in the analyzed essay.Moreover, Buchari (2016) carried out astudy entitled an analysis of lexicalcollocation error in students’ writing. Thisquantitative study focused on two types oflexical collocation errors i.e., verb noun andadjective noun combination, committed bystudents in their writing (blog). Theparticipants were English Departmentstudents in the fifth-semester, the academicyear of 2012, Universitas Negeri Gorontalo.His study provided the correct lexicalcollocations which were commonly used bynative English writers in academic writing.Furthermore, an observation was theinstrument of data collection technique on hisstudy in which all data were collected from16 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASA
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llcethe students‟ articles posted on their blog andwere analyzed each datum by finding out thesentences with lexical collocation errors. Theerrors were identified by using Hausmann‟stheory (1980). As a result, his study found 14data, and the data comprised six data ofverb noun and eight data of adjective noun.Lack of lexical collocation knowledge was oneof the possible reasons behind such errors in hisstudy.Compared to the two previous studies, thesource of data was from the students’ writtenessays and blogs whilst the data source of thisstudy is from a corpus of students’ writingsamples, particularly argumentative essays, inwhich the students have written the essay basedon the provided topics from the lecturers duringtheir class is ongoing. In the present study, theargumentative essay refers to an essaycomprising evidence, reason, and fact providedby the writers to show their arguments andopinion. This type of essay is considered anappropriate tool to be the source of data since itwill encourage the students to write the essaycritically, use academic words and advancedgrammar as well. Due to those aspects, it is likelythe erroneous use of lexical collocation will befound in students’ essays.In contrast to both studies, the presentstudy focuses on seven types of lexicalcollocation provided by Benson, Benson, andIlson (1997). Moreover, this study intends todiscover the causal factors of committing lexicalcollocation errors while both previous studiesdid not. By pointing out the factors that causelexical collocation errors in student academicwriting, students and teachers can not only getinformation and references about the factors thatcause the errors, but they can also find out whatsolutions should be taken to avoid the use oflexical collocation errors in students’ academicwriting. Further, the theories, aims, and methodsused are also different from those three previousstudies with this present study. By consideringthis basic consideration, the main focus of thisstudy is laying on two aspects; investigating thetypes of lexical collocation errors committed bystudents in their argumentative essay and findingthe causal factors that lead the students tocommit those lexical collocation errors.17 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASAMETHODThis study was a case study that providescomprehensive explanations in order to gaina profound insight into the types and thecausal factors of lexical collocation errorphenomena that took place in students’writing.The participants of this study were thestudents of the English EducationDepartment Universitas Negeri Gorontalowho had enrolled in Writing for AcademicPurposes Class. This research had sixteenstudents who became the participants. Itconsisted of twelve female students and fourmale students. They were chosen becausetheir ability to write an academic essay,particularly argumentative essay, wassignificantly above the average rather thanthe other students in the same class.Moreover, those students’ essays consisted offewer ungrammatical sentences and thestudents also had an opportunity to developtheir skills in writing.The research applied two maininstrumentstocollectthedata;documentation and interview session.Documentation was employed to collect datafrom students’ argumentative essays. Therewere sixteen essay documents in this studythat have been taken from students’argumentative essays. Moreover, a semistructured interview was the secondqualitative data collection technique used inthe present study. It was employed as a toolto discover other possible causal factors ofproducing lexical collocation errors instudents’ essays.In terms of data analysis technique, thisstudy employed an error analysis techniquedeveloped by Ellis (1994) to analyze theobtained lexical collocation errors andapplied a content analysis technique providedby Kumar (2011) to analyze the interviewresults. All the data were then analyzed anddescribed in more detail by using the theoryof Benson et al., (1997) about the seven types
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llceof lexical collocation that cover the Combinationof verb noun/pronoun (prepositional phrase),Combination of verb noun, Combination ofadjective noun, Combination of noun verb,Combination of noun noun, Combination ofadverb adjective, and Combination of verb adverb. The use of English Collocationdictionaries was also involved in supporting thedata analysis.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONResultsThe erroneousness of the obtained collocationserror in students’ essays was verified in thefollowing dictionaries; Longman CollocationDictionary and Thesaurus (LCDT), EnglishCollocation Dictionary (ECD), British NationalCorpus (BNC), Oxford Collocation Dictionary(OCD), and Corpus of Contemporary AmericanEnglish (COCA). These dictionaries were usedto consult and to confirm the obtainedcollocation form either the collocation wascorrect or error. The result reveals 54erroneousness of lexical collocations productionin students’ argumentative essays. The 54erroneousness are spread out into five types ofcollocation errors; Verb Noun / Pronoun (PP),Adjective Noun, Adverb Adjective, Noun Noun, Verb Adverb. The results are providedin the following table.Table 1. The errors of lexical collocationproduction in students’ argumentative essayNoTypesLC1Verb Noun/Pronoun (PP)Adjective NounAdverb AdjectiveNoun NounVerb AdverbVerb NounNoun VerbTotalLC2LC3LC4LC5LC6LC7Number ofCases32118210054The table shows the various lexical18collocation error types according to theirnumber of occurrences in students’ essaysfrom the most to the least frequent errors. Itcan be seen that students largely deal withverb noun/pronoun (prepositional phrase)combination problems. It has 32 errors inwhich this combination reaches the highestnumber of the erroneousness of lexicalcollocation production in students’ essays.However, lexical collocation errors of noun verb and verb noun combination are notfound, because students rarely use it and,when they do, use it correctly. The lexicalcollocation error subtype with the highestfrequency is probably the most difficult ortricky for EFL students to use, while thosewith lower frequencies or no errors do notneed to be considered the easiest for EFLstudents to use. Thus, only five collocationerrors out of seven lexical collocation typesare discovered in this study.Furthermore, the interview sessionreveals several factors that commonly leadthe students to commit lexical collocationerrors in the essay. Lack of knowledgebecomes the main cause of committing errorsin the essay. The students inform that theyonly know a few about lexical collocationsyet do not understand them well. Moreover,they are only familiar with some examples oflexical collocation such as a greenhouse, takea shower, have dinner, and make anagreement. The other reasons are the use ofsynonym strategy, overgeneralization ofrules, approximation, having no more time tocheck the collocation, and mother tongueinfluence. These causes are believed behindsuch errors.DiscussionThe Lexical Collocation Errors in Students’Argumentative EssayThe research data is presented in tables thataim to display the data into lexical collocationerrors and their suggested corrections. It alsoaims to make the readers easier to identify thetypes of lexical collocation errors in students'writing. The table 2 below presents thefindings of the types of lexical collocation 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASA
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llceerrors in the use of Verb Noun / Pronoun (PP).Table 2. Verb Noun/Pronoun 1Get effectHave effect2Reach dreamAchieve dream3Create project Undertakeproject4Open business Start Broadenexperienceexperience7Made reasonExplain a reason8MakeCreateemploymentemployment9ProvideMake friendsfriendship10Post thoughtsExpress thought11FindHave advantagesadvantages12Preserving the Maintainthemother tongue mother tongue13Using English Speak English14Success in our Succeed in oureducationeducation15Run an e portthe Promotethetourism sector tourism sector20Takea Requireadetermination ss22SharingBring happinesshappiness23MaintainReinforce/imageImprove image24Involves the Cover the costcostThe table presents 32 errors of verb noun/pronoun (PP) combination in which thiscombination most frequently occurs instudents’ writing. Most of the verb noun/pronoun lexical collocations presentedin this section are semantically transparent. Itgoes involving in the transparency of bothelements of the word in which this categoryincludes words whose meaning can bepredicted by deciphering the word in itsconstituents and analyzing their meaningseparately. For example, (32) develop abilityas the suggested correction of increaseability. When this collocation is parsed intodevelop and ability, its meaning can bederived from each element which meansmengembangkan kemampuan. This fact isalso supported by Benson et al., (1997)statement - that is, some lexical collocationsare semantically transparent in which themeaning of the combination is stillpredictable and understandable from thelexical items used of the combination.In terms of restriction types, most of thecommitted lexical collocations errors areunrestricted. It means that such lexicalcollocation whose constituents both thecollocator/verb and the base/noun of thecombination can be collocated with a fewother possible collocates. For example, thenoun business can co-occur with possibleverbs namely, start, set up, run, expand,develop, and establish. Such loose19 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASA2526272829303132Promote ivacyBecome trendProvideinvitationDesign eventsIncreaseabilitySell theMerchandiseSet the accountPost/Leave commentsProtect/Safeguardthe privacyReflected trendSend anInvitationOrganize eventsDevelopthe ability
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llcecollocation is supposed to be fully understood bystudents.These findings are directly proportional toShitu's (2015) finding in her study where thisverb noun/pronoun (PP) combination alsoreached the highest number of errors with 100occurrences. In contrast to Shitu's (2015) study,Martelli's (2004) and Buchari‟s (2016) findingsare inversely proportional to this current study inwhich students largely deal with adjective noun combination problem. It can be recognizedthat from the finding of previous studies and thiscurrent study, verb noun/pronoun (PP) andadjective noun collocations are seen as moreprone to errors.Besides the collocation errors in the use ofVerb Noun / Pronoun (PP), collocation errorswere also found in the use of Adjective Noun.Here is the table that explains it.Table 3. Adjective 33Annoying lessonBoring lesson34ComfortableIdeal placeplace35Aesthetic viewWonderfulview36Popular topicHot topic37Difficult LessonHarsh Lesson38Different Subjects VocationalSubjects39Verbal Questions RelevantQuestions40Non-Educational Non-CivilJob OpportunityService JobOpportunity41Varied JobAmple JobOpportunityOpportunity42Obvious intAs provided in table 3, this combination reachesthe second-highest number of lexical collocationerrors production. 11 erroneousness isdiscovered in students’ essays. Such occurrences20are quite logical because it is usuallyadjectives that have attributive functions andmodify a noun in a noun phrase. As beenexplained by Benson et al., (1997) thatadjectives in this type take a role as thecollocates/collocator, and the noun itself takea role as the base. For example, a pitchedbattle, a formidable challenge, a crushingdefeat, a rough estimate, an implacable foe, asweeping generalization, etc.For the type of restriction, most nounsin the above example have a medium to a lowdegree of restriction, which means that theycan collocate with a relatively large range ofadjectives. The wrong choice of adjectivesmay be due to the fact that this type ofrestriction is arbitrary that is not semanticallymotivated. Such this notion is also claimed byMartelli (2004) in her study that Italianadvanced students committed errors ofadjective noun combination due to thearbitrary convention of a language. Forexample, the reason why the tight conditionis considered error while strict condition isconsidered non-error; this is not the result ofthe semantic features of the two adjectivesbut from a rather arbitrary languageconvention. In conclusion, students commiterroneousness of adjective noun collocationbecause they cannot determine oneappropriate adjective to modify the nounhead, thus a certain communicative purposeis not achieved well.Moreover, this case seems somewhatsimilar to the verb noun/ pronouncombination problem, where the lexicalcollocation errors presented in table 4 arelargely semantically transparent. Thissemantic transparency can be recognizedwhen the collocation is parsed and analyzedseparately. For example, (37) harsh lesson asthe suggested correction of collocation errordifficult lesson means one that teaches ussomething in an extremely unpleasant way.Another type of collocation error thatwas discovered in students' writing was theuse of Adverbs Adjectives. These findingscan be seen in the following table. 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASA
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llceTable 4. Adverb Error44Obviously Save Perfectly Safe45Very interested PassionatelyInterested46Mostly Popular EnormouslyPopular47Very GoodExtremelyGood/Great48Very Concerned DeeplyConcerned49Very DifficultIncrediblyDifficult/Arduous50Very important Highly important51Very popularHugely popularAnothererroneousnessoflexicalcollocation is the combination of adverb adjective in which students produced 8collocation errors in this type. As having beennoted by Benson et al., (1997) that this type ofcollocation, the adverb takes a role as acollocator of the base adjective such as deeplyabsorbed and strictly accurate. All know thatadverb serves to describe a verb which isfrequently called adverb of manner. However, inthis case, the adverbs serve as intensifiers whichare usually used to add emphasis. As presentedin the table that all adverb adjectivecollocations committed by students have noadverbs that perform the intensifier functionproperly. For example, the adverbs obviouslyand mostly do not strengthen the meaning of theadjectives safe, and popular.For the type of restriction, most lexicalcollocation errors in this type are regarded asunrestricted or loose collocation. As clearlynoted by Moehkardi (2002) that unrestricted orloose collocations are freely combinable tocertain words. For instance, the adjective safecan be collocated with adverbs completely,perfectly, totally, and really. Such adverbs areappropriate within the context. Since the adverbsact as an intensifier of the adjective in order tostrengthen the meaning of its combination,students need to check the combination in acollocation dictionary to ensure that the21collocation produced has a precise meaning.Furthermore, most of the adverb adjective lexical collocations presented in thetablearesemanticallytransparent.Collocation meaning can be predicted byparsing the combination into its constituentsand analyzing their meaning separately. Forexample, (32) highly important as thesuggested correction of very important. Thiscombination represents something vital. Toproduce an academic essay, the adverb veryshould be replaced by highly to greatlystrengthen the meaning of the adjectiveimportant.Furthermore, the improper use of Noun Noun collocation found in students’ writingis shown in the following table.Table 5. Noun 52Internet quota Internet access,Data plans,Credit, Mobiledata plan53Staging course Staging ofeventsA literal translation and lack of lexicalcollocation competence are probably thecausal factors that drive students to committhese collocation errors. Such lexicalcollocationsdemonstrateastrongrelationship between each noun element. Thetwo lexical collocations, in this case, do notfulfill their role as a base and a collocator,hence it does not carry an exact meaningwithin the context. As stated by Benson et al.,(1997) that this combination indicates the unitthat is associated with a noun. These errorsare assumed as contextual error and wordchoice error in which ESL students committhese errors because they incorrectly chooseproper collocator nouns to collocate with thebase.Furthermore, a remark on semantictransparency and restriction type of the datafound is also explained. First of all, as seen in 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASA
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llcethe table that noun noun collocations producedby students are semantically transparent. Theirmeaning is predictable, both writers and readerscan recognize the meaning easily (Benson et al.,1997). In this case, the produced collocations donot correspond with the meaning of theirIndonesian equivalents, for example, (52)internet quota is a translation result of quotainternet. Additionally, (53) staging course is notequivalent to the intended meaning by students.Moreover, as for the restriction, all noun noun collocations taking place in students’essays are restricted. It means that the lexicalcollocation has limited occurrences with otherwords (Moehkardi, 2002). For instance, the nouninternet can only go together with connection oraccess to express that we need credit to stayonline. However, there are other ways to expresspaket internet, such as data plans, credit, data, ormobile data plan, and internet connections, suchthese expressions are equivalents to paket dataor paket internet in Indonesian expression.Such findings, moreover, are discovered inShitu’s (2015) study. There were 67 erroroccurrences in analyzed essays. The followingare some illustrative examples of collocationerrors in her study; educational circular insteadof educational circle, academic help supportinstead of academic assistance, educationformats in place of education systems, etc. Theseerrors are assumed as contextual error and wordchoice error in which ESL students commit theseerrors because they incorrectly choose propercollocator nouns to collocate with the base.Moreover, this occurs because the intendedmeaning does not seem appropriate within thecontext. Thus, Shitu’s findings are somewhatsimilar to this study; students commit the errorsdue to the wrong choice of noun collocator. Eventhough the total number of errors is significantlydifferent, it shows that students’ ability toproduce lexical collocation is completelydifferent from one another.The last finding regarding collocationerrors in students’ writing is the use of Verb Adverb collocation which is presented in thefollowing ouslySuggestedCorrectionLearnEnglish ALotThe last issue of lexical collocationerror in students’ essays deals rather with thecombination of verb adverb. Thiscombination consists of verbs and adverbs, inwhich the adverb serves to describe the waypeople do things. For example, speak quietly,read carefully, explain briefly, etc. It seemsthat easy, however, students still commit anerror of this combination in which theycollocate an incorrect adverb seriously todescribe verb learn. Such error also takesplace in Shitu’s (2015) study, in which thiscollocation error has 40 occurrences. Forexample, study deeply in place of study hard.Students commit this collocation error due tothe influence of the Hausa language as theirmother tongue. In addition, this lexicalcollocation is regarded as a contextual error(Shitu, 2015).As clearly shown in the table, the verb adverb combination produced by studentsis semantically transparent. It can berecognized when the collocation is parsed andanalyzed its meaning separately. Forexample, learn a lot as the suggestedcorrection of collocation error learn seriouslywhich means one that studies hard to gainknowledge or skill he aims for. However, themeaning of the combination does notcorrespond with the meaning of its Indonesiaequivalents. In other words, this collocationis such an Indonesian style.In terms of restriction type, moreover,this lexical collocation error occurring instudents’ essays is restricted. It is because thechosen word that will be collocated to oneanother word is definite (Moehkardi, 2002).In this case, the base learn only goes togetherwith adverb a lot as its collocator that isappropriate within the context and intendedmeaning.Table 6. Verb Adverb22 2021 The Authors. Published by TRANSBAHASA
TRANS-KATA: Journal of Language, Literature, Culture, and Education. e-ISSN: 2747-005, Vol.2, No.1, 2021, llceThe Causes of Lexical Collocation Error inStudents’ Argumentative EssayLack of Collocation CompetenceIt is not wondering that inadequate mastery ofcollocation frequently leads students to commiterroneousness because it is not the main concernon English language teaching as a fore
lexical collocations, and using the correct lexical collocations continuously in oral and written communication. The study of lexical collocation has been conducted by many researchers in the past few decades. The first previous study was by Martelli (2004) about a study of English lexical collocations written by Italian
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Reasons to Separate Lexical and Syntax Analysis Simplicity - less complex approaches can be used for lexical analysis; separating them simplifies the parser Efficiency - separation allows optimization of the lexical analyzer Portability - parts of the lexical analyzer may not be portable, but the parser is always portable
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Resolving ambiguity through lexical asso- ciations Whittemore et al. (1990) found lexical preferences to be the key to resolving attachment ambiguity. Similarly, Taraban and McClelland found lexical content was key in explaining people's behavior. Various previous propos- als for guiding attachment disambiguation by the lexical
causative constructions found in languages viz. non-lexical and lexical. The non-lexical causative, . The non-lexical causative shows ambiguity when used with adverbs Downloaded by [Kenyatta University] at 00:03 08 March 2016 . 388 but the lexical causative does not have this ambiguity (Cooper, 1976:323). To illustrate,
Since Firth (1957) introduced the terms collocation and fixed expressions, there has been growing research interest on frequent word combinations under different names and with somewhat different meanings such as; lexical chunks (Lewis, 1993), lexical bundles (Biber & Conrad, 1999), lex
lexical and sub-lexical treatment to improve the speed and accuracy of reading in dyslexic subjects. The objective of this research is to report the results of the quantitative and qualitative analysis of dysphonetic and . dyseidetic errors after lexical and sub-lexical treatment. Since this
reading is to read each day for at minimum 30 minutes. Please turn in all assignments to your child’s teacher in the fall. May you have a blessed, restful, relaxing, enjoyable and fun-filled summer! Sincerely, Thomas Schroeder & Vicki Flournoy Second Grade Summer Learning Packet. DEAR FAMILY, As many of you are planning for your summer activities for your children, we want you to remember .
