ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE - National Gallery Of Art
ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE{ A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }{ A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURENational Gallery of Art, Washington
Mailing address2000B South Club DriveLandover, MD 20785ISLAMIC ART AND CULTUREDivision of EducationNational Gallery of Art, WashingtonThis packet was produced in conjunction with the exhibition Palaceand Mosque: Islamic Art from theVictoria and Albert Museum. It has beensupplemented with objects not in the exhibition.National Gallery of Art, Washington(July 18, 2004 February 6, 2005)Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas(April 3 September 4, 2005)Setagaya Art Museum, Tokyo, Japan(October 22 December 11, 2005){ A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }Millennium Galleries, Sheffield, England(January 14 April 16, 2006).ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE{ A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }This exhibition was organized by the Victoria and Albert Museum,London, in association with the National Gallery of Art, Washington.The exhibition at the National Gallery of Art is generouslysponsored by H.R.H. Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Ambassador ofSaudi Arabia to the United States.The international tour of this exhibition has been made possible bythe generosity of Mohammed Jameel, the benefactor of the V&A’sJameel Gallery of Islamic Art, which is dedicated to the memory ofMr. Abdul Latif Jameel, the late founder of the Abdul Latif JameelGroup, and his wife Nafisa.It is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on theArts and the Humanities.National Gallery of Art, WashingtonThe packet was prepared by the Division of Education and producedby the Publishing Office. Designed by Catalone Design Co. Ourthanks to Rosamond Mack, Barry Wood, and Richard Carter. 2004 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washingtoncover image:Architectural details from the AlhambraGrenada, Spainphotograph Ana Maria Zavala
TABLE OF CONTENTSINTRODUCTION13334Islamic artCalligraphyArabesquesGeometric designsThe question of imagesMAPS56The extent of Islamic territory c. 900The extent of Islamic territory c. 1500HISTORICAL SURVEY7891011111214Muhammad and the beginnings of IslamThe first caliphs and the UmayyadsA golden age: The Abbasid DynastyEarly medieval dynasties in the west:Fatimids, AyyubidsEarly medieval dynasties in the east:Ghaznavids, SeljuksLate medieval period: Mongols and MamluksThe late empires: Ottomans in the westThe late empires: Safavids in the eastSLIDE DISCUSSIONS15 SECTION 1: Islam, the mosque,and the Qur’an15161819The Qur’anThe Five Pillars of IslamThe mosqueSlides 1 624 SECTION 2: Science and learning28Slides 7 931 SECTION 3: Palaces and poetry32Slides 10 1439 SECTION 4: Arts of the objectin exchange40Slides 15 2051 TEACHING ACTIVITIES515253Social Studies: InvestigationCreative Writing: It’s a MysteryArt & Math: Shapes and Patterns55 GLOSSARY & RESOURCES58Slides and reproductions
ABOUT THIS PACKETThis teaching resource consists of this booklet, which contains introductory material, slidedescriptions, teaching suggestions, maps, a glossary, and resources twenty slides four color reproductions a CD with image files, and a PDF version of the online featureArtistic Exchange: Europe and the IslamicWorld
ISLAMIC ART“Islamic art” is a label coined in the West in thenineteenth century. Unlike “Christian art” or “Buddhistart,” it does not describe art with a particular set ofreligious imagery. In fact, Islamic art has few exclusivelyreligious symbols comparable to the Christian cross.Instead, the term “Islamic art” designates all art,religious or secular, that was produced in lands underMuslim leadership. Its makers and its patrons mightbe Muslim or not. In this packet we look at worksthat span nearly a thousand years—from shortlyafter the foundation of Islam in the seventh centuryto the seventeenth century when the last two greatIslamic empires — the Ottoman and the Safavid—hadreached their peak. Although the definition of Islamicart usually includes work made in Mughal India, itis beyond the scope of this packet. The works we willlook at here come from as far west as Spain and as fareast as Afghanistan.1Naturally, within this span of time and space many variations andstyles occur.Yet, Islamic art remains somehow “recognizable”throughout. In the West, the word “art” produces mental images ofpaintings hung on walls or large-scale sculpture, but these (althoughnot unknown) are not the focus of Islamic art. Rather, the mostimportant outlets for artistic expression in the Islamic world were:- architecture- the arts of the book (calligraphy, manuscript illumination,and bookbinding)- the arts of the object (especially metalwork, ceramics, glass,and textiles)And each of these was ornamented with a particularly Islamicvocabulary of surface decoration:- calligraphy- arabesques, scrolling patterns, and floral or plant designs- geometric designsISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }
CALLIGRAPHYIslam developed in a nomadic Arab culture that valued poetry andoral tradition. The faith’s fundamental basis is the message of Godthat was given to and relayed by the Prophet Muhammad, and thatis preserved in the Qur’an. While Christians accept Christ as God’sincarnation, Muhammad does not share God’s divinity. The priorityof the words themselves, rather than the messenger, left Islamwith little use for iconic images like those that developed in earlyChristianity. Instead, the emphasis on the words and the languageof God’s message elevated the script in which they were recorded.Calligraphy — beautiful writing — became the most revered ofall the arts. It was used — on buildings and art of all types—tocommunicate the words of the Qur’an or other messages but alsofor its decorative effect.Oppisite page:3Minbar for Sultan Qa’itbay (detail)Egypt (Mamluk), probably Cairo,between 1468 and 1496,Wood and ivory inlayVictoria and Albert Museum, LondonARABESQUESScrolling patterns of plant and floral motifs were part of the visualvocabulary Islamic art inherited from its early Byzantine andSasanian predecessors. They became so identified with Islamic artthat in the West they came to be called “arabesques.” Much of theIslamic world is arid and hot, and vegetation is scarce. Although toomuch can be made of the influence of this environment on art, it isperhaps natural that images of paradise reflect a lush world, full offlowers and fragrance, and well watered by cooling streams—andthat these would be considered beautiful as ornament.GEOMETRIC DESIGNSRepeating geometric patterns express —and embody—unitywithin diversity and the harmony that governs all things. They satisfythe Islamic principles of tawhid (the unity of all things) and mizan(order and balance) — and in so doing, they reflect the perfection ofGod’s creation. Allah, the Qur’an says “ordered all things. ”ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }
THE QUESTION OF IMAGES4ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }It is often believed—incorrectly—that the Qur’an prohibits imagesof living beings, either human or animal. The Qur’an does condemnthe worship of idols: “O ye who believe, wine and games ofchance and idols and divining arrows are an abomination of Satan’shandiwork.” (5.92). And the accounts and sayings of the Prophetrecorded in the hadith—some collected much later—suggest hisdistrust of representation. Such likenesses could be seen as usurpingthe creative action of God. From the very first, figures were absentin mosques, and then in other religious settings such as schools.Even the items used in religious buildings avoid figural decoration.But Islamic art is rich with figural decoration elsewhere: in the wallpaintings and mural tiles within palaces; in manuscript illumination;on textiles; and on metalwork and ceramics not intended forreligious purpose.
SPAIValenciaManisesNAFRICANORTHTrapaniSICIME DI TE R RA N E A NAmalfiLSalernoRomeI T A LYLuccaFlorenceS E HillahQShirazANNishapurSMarvMashhadA R A LS E Art eAFu Darya)GHTA NusSamarqandSIARAL AEKIS(A Gunbad-i QabusDamghanRIsfahan INatanzKashanRayy VaraminTehranArdabilTaq-i Takht-i ll MinisLICTOLIAANACIS E AB L A C KIM O R OC C OPisaYMálagaMadinat CVeniceBudaTHE EXTENT OF ISLAMIC TERRITORY c. 900ARUNTAAISENSANIndI AS PC AKH)5REDSEEMENAYISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }
SPAIValenciaManisesNAFRICANORTHTrapaniSICIME DI TE R RA N E A NAmalfiLSalernoRomeI T A LYLuccaFlorenceS E -HillahQShirazANNishapurSMarvMashhadA R A LS E Art eAFu Darya)GHTA NusSamarqandSIARAL AEKIS(A Gunbad-i QabusDamghanRIsfahan INatanzKashanRayy VaraminTehranArdabilTaq-i Takht-i ll MinisLICTOLIAANACIS E AB L A C KIMOROCCOPisaYMálagaMadinat CVeniceBudaTHE EXTENT OF ISLAMIC TERRITORY c.1500ARUNATAEISSNISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }NIndI AS PC AKH)A6REDSEAEMEN
MUHAMMAD AND THE BEGINNINGS OF ISLAMMuhammad was born around the year 570 in Mecca,a wealthy commercial and religious center in westernArabia. When he was about forty years old, Muhammadbegan to experience visions. One day, a voice exhortedhim to “recite in the name of the Lord who createdyou. ” Initially, Muhammad fled in confusion and fear,but the voice called after him, “O Muhammad, you arethe messenger of God, and I am the angel Gabriel.” Thiswas the beginning of God’s revelations to Muhammad;they continued for some ten years.{ THE ISLAMIC CALENDAR }7Muhammad’s migration to Medina,called the hejira, marks the start ofthe Islamic calendar. Dates are countedfrom A.D. 622 and designated “A.H.”This exhibition opened in 2004—thatis 1425 A.H. Months are based on thelunar cycle, so the year is slightly shorterthan the 365-day Gregorian calendaror the solar year. This means that themonths “slip”; they do not coincide withparticular times of year. In this packetall dates are given according to theWestern calendar.Muhammad’s message about the one true God quickly wonfollowers in Mecca. The city was home to the most importantreligious shrine in Arabia, where many gods were worshiped.Tensions quickly arose with the city’s leaders, and in 622Muhammad fled with his followers to the city of Yathrib.Soon it was being called Medinat al-Nabi—the town of theProphet — and then simply Medina. In Medina the new religiontook on a secular aspect as followers looked to Muhammad forcivic guidance. From the very outset, the adjective “Islamic”described not simply a spiritual and moral reality, but also apolitical one.ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }
THE FIRST CALIPHS AND THE UMAYYADS8{ ART OF THE UMAYYADS }The earliest art that we can call Islamicwas produced under the Umayyads.While the new religion, and the Arabiclanguage, quickly unified and definedtheir growing empire, their art lookedto existing regional styles. The artistictraditions of two great empires—whoseterritories were quickly falling toIslamic conquest—shaped the earlydevelopment of Islamic art. From theByzantine West, it inherited the lateclassical tradition and a vocabulary ofstylized vines, scrolls, and plant motifs.Early Islamic architects continuedByzantine experiments with domesand adapted other Byzantine formsto new uses. From Sasanian Persia(now Iran), Islamic artists inherited arepertory of court and hunting scenes(mostly from metalwork) that was wellmatched to Islamic rulers’ adoption ofelaborate Sasanian court rituals. Motifslike confronted lions and griffins werebased on the symmetrical designs of silktextiles. And the open arched space ofSasanian entryways—the iwan—wouldbecome one of the most identifiableelements of Islamic architecture.{ SHI’AS AND SUNNIS }Today Sunnism and Shi’ism are Islam’smost important branches. The vastmajority of Muslims—more than eightyfive percent—are Sunnis, but nearly allIslamic countries also have Shi’ite (andother) minorities. Today most Shi’as livein Iran and Iraq. Sunnis, who representIslamic orthodoxy, believe that thecommunity as a whole can interpretthe Qur’an. Shi’as, on the other hand,believe that only Ali—whom they see ashaving possesed special understandingof Islam—and his descendants werethe true sucessors of the Prophet. Theybelieve the authority to interpret theQur’an and lead the community inprayer rests only with devout, religiousteachers (imams).ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }When Muhammad died in 632, no successor had been identified—or even whether a successor was possible. Were individual Muslimsbound only to God or also to each other in an Islamic polity?Initially, some Arab tribes withdrew from the Muslim state. AbuBakr assumed Muhammad’s temporal authority (no one couldreplace him as prophet) and for two years battled breakawaytribesmen before his victory ensured that the political communityof Islam endured.Abu Bakr and the three men who followed had been companionsof the Prophet and early converts. They came to be called thefour “rightly guided caliphs” (632 661) —a word that means“successor.” Despite rapid expansion of the faith, serious internalconflicts emerged. After the third caliph was assassinated, a strugglefor the succession pitted his kinsman, Mu’awiya, and the Prophet’sson-in-law Ali. Ali prevailed but was himself assassinated in 661.After Ali’s death, Mu’awiya was recognized as caliph. He soonidentified his son as heir and successor, establishing the first Islamicdynasty. The Umayyads (661 750) moved the capital from Medinato Damascus. Its easier access to the wider world of the Middle Eastand the Mediterranean made it a more effective center for quicklygrowing administrative, military, and governmental functions. Themode of government also changed, the consensus of old tribal chiefsgiving way to a more autocratic style modeled on the neighboringByzantine and Sasanian empires.By 750 the Islamic empire covered a quarter of the globe, from theAtlantic Ocean to the Indus River, and had acquired unprecedentedwealth. However, what had begun as a dispute over the selectionof a new caliph was deepening into a religious split. It centered onthe nature of a leader’s authority. Who was qualified to govern theIslamic community and ensure a just society? What was the basis ofhis legitimacy?Three main groups emerged. One held that anyone who had sinnedor committed an injustice was unfit to govern, an extreme view thateventually fell outside the mainstream of political life. The Shi’as—literally the “partisans” of Ali—held that the leader of the Islamiccommunity should be a direct descendant of the Prophet. Sunnis—the word is derived from “tradition”—accepted any caliph who
could ensure the unity of the Islamic community. Sunnis respectedthe caliph as the political successor of Muhammad but rejected anyclaim that he was the Prophet’s spiritual heir.Armed revolt struck in many regions in the 740s. The last Umayyadcaliph fled to Egypt, where he was killed. Only one member ofthe family survived. ‘Abd al-Rahman escaped to North Africa, andfrom there to Spain, where he established a new Umayyad dynastyat Córdoba that lasted until 1031. Other Muslim rulers wouldcontinue to govern parts of southern Spain until 1492. (See page 33for more information about Islamic Spain.)A GOLDEN AGE: THE ABBASID DYNASTYAfter the Umayyads fled, a descendant of the Prophet was appointedcaliph and inaugurated a new dynasty — the Abbasids (750 1258).The second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur (ruled 754 775), moved thecapital once again, shifting the focus farther east. On the site of asmall village, at a point where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers runclose to each other, he measured out an entirely new, round city. Henamed it Madinat al-Salam, city of peace, but it soon reverted to itsoriginal name — Baghdad.{ ART OF THE ABBASIDS }9Because Abbasid art was widelydisseminated, its style and techniquescontributed greatly to the evolution ofIslamic art. Abbasid carvings in stone,stucco, and wood have a distinct, flatlybeveled style. Their repeated and highlystylized or geometricized vegetal patternswould eventually be called “arabesques,”and they found their way onto almostevery kind of surface. Abbasid artresponded to the luxury of the court.For the first time in the Islamic world,ceramics seemed to have been viewed asan art form, perhaps in response to thefine Chinese porcelains that were thenmaking their way west via the silk road.Although Abbasid caliphs lost real control over the whole ofthe Islamic empire within about a hundred years, the first threecenturies of their rule are often called a “golden age.” Their courtsand enormous palace-cities, captured in fantastic tales from theArabian Nights, were the richest in the world, unsurpassed inluxury, sophistication, and culture. Nothing in Europe compared.As the Abbasid caliphs weakened, independent or semi-independentdynasties assumed power in Egypt, Iran, and other areas. By thetenth century, Abbasid control was effectively limited to Iraq.Baghdad itself had been captured three times by 1055, once by aShi’ite dynasty from Persia and twice by Seljuk Turks (see below).Although they retained influence and prestige as the protectorsof Sunni orthodoxy, politically the Abbasid caliphs became littlemore than figureheads. Baghdad was again attacked in 1258, thistime in a devastating invasion of Mongol armies from Central Asia.Surviving members of the Abbasid dynasty fled to Egypt, now ruledby Mamluk sultans.ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }
10Plate with splashed decorationIraq (Abbasid), probably Basra,9th 10th centuryTin-glazed earthenware with colored glazeVictoria and Albert Museum, London{ ART OF THE FATIMIDS }Fatimid taste for luxury spurred anefflorescence of the arts. Al-Fustat(the old town of Cairo) became a majorcenter for luxury goods. Fatimid artistswere celebrated for ceramics, especiallylusterwares whose metallic decorationmimicked precious metals, as well as fortextiles, glass, inlays in wood and ivory,and carvings of rock crystal. Paintersof lusterware sometimes signed theirwork—an indication of greater status.Fatimid decoration includes calligraphy,lively vegetal designs, and elaborategeometric patterns. But it also reveals agreat interest in figures.ISLAMIC ART AND CULTURE { A RESOURCE FOR TEACHERS }EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTIES IN THE WEST:FATIMIDS, AYYUBIDSAs Abbasid authority weakened, the Shi’ite Fatimid dynasty(909 1171) —claiming descent from Fatima, daughter of theProphet and wife of Ali—rose to power in North Africa. Theyexpanded into Egypt and Syria, and in 969 founded a new capitalat Cairo (the name means “the victorious”). Fatimid control of tradearound the Mediterranean brought enormous prosperity, and Cairobecame an important cultural center.After the Fatimids sought aid from Syria against invading Crusaderarmies, a Syrian officer—Salah al-Din ibn Ayyub (better known inthe West as Saladin)—overthrew the Fatimid ruler to establish anew dynasty. The Ayyubids (1171 1250) restored Egypt to Sunniorthodoxy. Salah al-Din expanded Ayyubid territory into Yemen,Syria, and Iraq, and in 1187 he decisively defeated the Crusaderstates. Ayyubid territory broke into a collection of semi-autonomousprincipalities after his death, but it continued to enjoy peaceand prosperity.
EARLY MEDIEVAL DYNASTIES IN THE EAST:GHAZNAVIDS, SELJUKSLarge migrations of nomads from the steppes of Central Asiabrought Turkish peoples into the Middle East and Asia Minor.A series of Turkish dynasties replaced the mostly Shi’ite Persiangovernors who had taken effective contro
ISLAMIC ART “Islamic art” is a label coined in the West in the nineteenth century. Unlike “Christian art” or “Buddhist art,” it does not describe art with a particular set of religious imagery. In fact, Islamic art has few exclusively religious symbols comparable to the Christian cross.
Islamic Grave Voodoo 57 Allah Will Grow Humans from their Graves 57 Islamic Interrogation in Graves 58 Islamic Torment in Graves 59 Islamic Rewards in Graves 61 CHAPTER 8 63 Islamic Medicine Voodoo 63 Islamic Cauterizing and Cupping 63 The Qur'an and Honey are Cures for All Illness 65
The Evolution of Islamic Banking System in Muslim countries: Before describing the evolution of the Islamic banking it is important to understand what Islamic banking is and what are its principles or features. 1.1) What is Islamic Banking? Islamic Banking is banking or financing activity that is based on Shariah (Islamic Law) and all
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Sacred geometry – Golden ratio - Fibonacci sequence - Islamic art – Islamic architecture . Introduction: The Islamic art is an expression of Islamic faith thoughts and is a reflection of it. In addition, as beauty, the eyes by which the Muslim recognizes the around world, and as meditation, the
ART 110 . Art Appreciation (2) ART 151 . Introduction to Social Practice Art (3) ART 281 . History of Western Art I (3) ART 282 . History of Western Art II (3) ART 384 . Art Since 1900 (3) ART 387. History of Photography (3) ART 389 . Women in Art (3) ENGL 270 . Introduction to Creative Writing (3)* HON 310 . Art in Focus (3)** each semester .
Printmaking/Digital Media: Art 231, Art 235, Art 270, Art 331, Art 370, Art 492 Painting: Art 104, Art 203, Art 261, Art 285, Art 361, Art 461, Art 492 The remaining 21 credits of Fine Arts electives may be selected from any of the above areas as well as
978-0-521-73920-7 - Cambridge BEC Higher 4: With Answers: Examination Papers from University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations: English for Speakers of Other Languages Frontmatter Moreinformation. Test of Reading (1 hour) This paper consists of six parts with 52 questions, which take the form of two multiple-matching tasks, two multiple-choice tasks, a cloze test and an error- identification .
