Elements Of Environmental Science Engineering - Kopykitab

Second Edition Elements of Environmental Science and Engineering Lithosphere Atmosphere Biosphere Hydrosphere P. Meenakshi

Elements of Environmental Science and Engineering SECOND EDITION P. MEENAKSHI Formerly Assistant Professor Department of Civil Engineering Coimbatore Institute of Technology Coimbatore New Delhi-110001 2012

ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING, Second Edition P. Meenakshi 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-4523-2 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Seventh Printing (Second Edition) March, 2012 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi-110091.

Contents Preface ix Acknowledgements xi Chapter 1 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: Present Scenario 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Environmental 1.3 Environmental 1.4 Environmental 1.5 Environmental Review Questions Chapter 2 1–7 1 Degradation 1 Management 4 Awareness 4 Education 6 7 SCIENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 8–25 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Lithosphere 9 2.3 Hydrosphere 17 2.4 Atmosphere 19 2.5 Biosphere 23 2.6 Unsustainable Development 24 2.7 Sustainable Development 24 Review Questions 25 Chapter 3 NATURAL RESOURCES 3.1 Introduction 26 3.2 Forest Resources 26 3.3 Water Sources 30 3.4 Mineral Resources 36 3.5 Food Resources 39 3.6 Energy Resources 46 3.7 Land Resources 48 3.8 Conservation 56 3.9 Equitable Use 56 Review Questions 57 iii 26–57

iv Chapter 4 CONTENTS DISASTER MANAGEMENT 58–71 4.1 Introduction 58 4.2 Droughts 58 4.3 Landslides 59 4.4 Floods 60 4.5 Cyclones 63 4.6 Earthquakes 66 Review Questions 71 Chapter 5 ENGINEERING INTERVENTIONS 5.1 Introduction 72 5.2 Environmental Pollution Control Review Questions 83 Chapter 6 72–83 72 ECOSYSTEMS 84–103 6.1 Introduction 84 6.2 Definition 84 6.3 Concept 84 6.4 Characteristics 85 6.5 Components 87 6.6 Food Chain 89 6.7 Food Web 89 6.8 Ecological Pyramids 90 6.9 Forest Ecosystem 91 6.10 Aquatic Ecosystem 95 6.11 Freshwater Ecosystem 96 6.12 Estuarine Ecosystem 97 6.13 Marine Ecosystem 97 6.14 Development and Evolution 99 6.15 Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance 6.16 Adaptation by Natural Selection 101 6.17 Ecology 102 Review Questions 103 Chapter 7 BIODIVERSITY 7.1 Introduction 104 7.2 Levels of Biodiversity 104 7.3 The Biogeographic Classification of India 7.4 The Importance of Biodiversity 109 7.5 The Value of Diversity 109 7.6 Conservation of Biodiversity 110 7.7 Endemic Species 113 7.8 Endangered Species 114 7.9 Global Biological Hot Spots 114 7.10 Threats to Biodiversity 117 Review Questions 121 100 104–121 105

v CONTENTS Chapter 8 WATER POLLUTION 122–133 8.1 Introduction 122 8.2 Sources of Water Pollution 122 8.3 Classification of Water Pollutants 123 8.4 Effects of Water Pollution 128 8.5 Disposal by Dilution 129 8.6 Self Purification of Natural Streams 129 8.7 Oxygen Sag Analysis 131 8.8 Control Measures of Water Pollution 132 Review Questions 133 Chapter 9 AIR POLLUTION 134–155 9.1 Introduction 134 9.2 Sources of Air Pollution 134 9.3 Air Pollutants 135 9.4 Effects of Air Pollution 138 9.5 Air Pollution Control Methods Review Questions 155 Chapter 10 SOIL POLLUTION 10.1 Introduction 156 10.2 Sources of Soil Pollution 10.3 Effects of Soil Pollutants 10.4 Control Measures 162 Review Questions 162 Chapter 11 141 156–162 156 162 NOISE POLLUTION 163–171 11.1 Introduction 163 11.2 Measurement of Sound 163 11.3 Sources of Noise Pollution 164 11.4 Effects of Noise 167 11.5 Control of Noise Pollution 169 Review Questions 171 Chapter 12 THERMAL POLLUTION 172–180 12.1 Introduction 172 12.2 Sources of Thermal Pollution 172 12.3 Process of Mixing Heated Effluents with Receiving Waters 12.4 Harmful Effects of Thermal Pollutants 174 12.5 Control of Thermal Pollution 178 12.6 Cooling Ponds 178 12.7 Spray Ponds 179 12.8 Cooling Towers 179 Review Questions 180 174

vi CONTENTS Chapter 13 MARINE POLLUTION 181–188 13.1 Introduction 181 13.2 Sources of Marine Pollution 181 13.3 Diffusion of Sewage in Seawater 183 13.4 Marine Pollution in India 183 13.5 Effects of Marine Pollution 184 13.6 Control of Marine Pollution 185 Review Questions 188 Chapter 14 SOLID WASTES 189–204 14.1 Introduction 189 14.2 Classification 189 14.3 Composition 189 14.4 Solid Waste Management 191 14.5 Waste Minimisation 201 14.6 Typical MRF Operation 203 Review Questions 204 Chapter 15 HAZARDOUS WASTES 205–226 15.1 Introduction 205 15.2 Hazardous Characteristics 205 15.3 Classification of Hazardous Wastes 205 15.4 Control of Radioactive Pollution 218 15.5 Handling Hazardous Waste 225 Review Questions 226 Chapter 16 ENERGY 227–247 16.1 Introduction 227 16.2 Non-renewable Energy Resources 228 16.3 Renewable Energy Resources 232 16.4 Energy Conservation 245 Review Questions 247 Chapter 17 ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH 17.1 Introduction 248 17.2 Waterborne Diseases 248 17.3 Foodborne Diseases 250 17.4 Vector-borne Diseases 251 17.5 Insect Vector and Rodent Control 256 17.6 Fly Control 263 17.7 Rodent Control and Rat Fleas 266 17.8 Principles of Food Sanitation 267 Review Questions 272 248–272

vii CONTENTS Chapter 18 ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS 273–290 18.1 Introduction 273 18.2 Acid Rain 273 18.3 Greenhouse Effect 275 18.4 Global Warming 277 18.5 Ozone Layer Depletion 279 18.6 Photochemical Smog 282 18.7 Eutrophication 285 18.8 Biomagnification 287 Review Questions 290 Chapter 19 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 19.1 Introduction 291 19.2 Need for EIA 291 19.3 Goals of EIA 292 19.4 Methodology of Environmental Impact Assessment 19.5 Limitation of the Environmental Impact Assessment 19.6 Environmental Impact of Industrialisation 297 19.7 Environmental Impact of Urbanisation 298 Review Questions 298 Chapter 20 SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10 20.11 20.12 20.13 20.14 20.15 20.16 20.17 299–317 316 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 21.1 21.2 292 296 Introduction 299 Population Growth 299 Variation among Nations 299 Urban Problems Related to Energy 300 Water Conservation 300 Watershed Management 301 Rainwater Harvesting 302 Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People 303 Environmental Ethics 304 Value Education 305 Human Rights and the Environment 306 Public Participation 308 Consumerism and Waste Products 309 HIV/AIDS 310 Women and Child Welfare 311 Family Welfare Programme 314 Role of Information Technology 316 Review Questions Chapter 21 291–298 Introduction 318 Conventions or Treaties 318 318–332

viii CONTENTS 21.3 Environmental Conventions 320 21.4 Pollution Control Boards 322 21.5 The Precautionary Principle 323 21.6 ‘Polluter Pays’ Principle 323 21.7 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) 21.8 Legal Aspects 325 21.9 Regulatory Standards 330 21.10 Impact of Legal Framework 331 21.11 Problems in Enforcement of Legislation 21.12 Concentration-based Standards 331 21.13 Command and Control Policies 331 Review Questions 332 Index 324 331 333–336

Preface Environmental Science and Engineering is an emerging discipline. Today, it is prescribed by the UGC as a compulsory course for undergraduate students of all universities. It applies the knowledge of Physics, Chemistry and Biology to reduce the pollution load through a multidisciplinary approach. The aim of this book is to provide substantial knowledge to the reader who has only a limited knowledge of the multidisciplinary principles. Organized into 21 chapters, this book tries to give a comprehensive coverage of the various aspects relating to environmental science, environmental management, environmental impact assessment, social issues, and so on. Chapter 1 describes the present scenario of environmental awareness. Chapter 2 includes the principles of Physics, Chemistry and Biology of water, land, air, and their interrelationships. Chapter 3 describes the uses and effects of overexploitation of natural resources such as forest, water, mineral, food, energy and land. It provides an overview of different ecosystems, their functions and characteristics, and biotic and abiotic components. This chapter also outlines the nutrient and energy flow, food chain, food web and ecological pyramids. Chapter 4 deals with the various types of disasters and their management, taking into account the technical and social aspects. Chapter 5 elucidates the engineering interventions needed for the protection of environment. Chapter 6 explains the concept, components, structure and types of ecosystem and branches of ecology. Chapter 7 describes the importance and value of biodiversity, biogeographical classification of India, epidemic and endemic species of India, hot spots, threats, and conservation of biodiversity. Chapters 8–13 discuss in detail the sources, effects and control measures of water, air, soil, noise, thermal and marine pollution, respectively. Chapter 14 describes the generation of solid wastes and the functional elements in solid waste management. Chapter 15 categorises the hazardous wastes as biomedical, radioactive and chemical wastes, and presents a clear picture of their management. Chapter 16 provides an outline of the energy resources and the importance of their conservation. Chapter 17 discusses environment and human health. Chapter 18 describes the sources, effects and control of global environmental threats such as acid rain, greenhouse effect, global warming and biomagnification. ix

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Organized into 21 chapters, this book tries to give a comprehensive coverage of the various aspects relating to environmental science, environmental management, environmental impact assessment, social issues, and so on. Chapter 1 describes the present scenario of environmental awareness. Chapter 2 includes the principles of