Fundamental Of Digital Computer - Lkpm.balaji
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerFundamental of digital computerIntroduction to computer:A computer is an electronic device that has the ability to accept data, store data, performmathematical and logical operations, and report the results.Computers have become an integral part of our lives today.Many aspects of our life have been affected by the changes brought by computer.Today Banks, Educational institutions, railways and airline reservations and commercialorganizations use the computers to performing difficult and repetitive tasks.Computers are also used in the fields of weather forecast, medical research, securitypurpose, space research and undersea explorations.Computers are categories on the basic of size, cost and performance.The various types of computers areMicrocomputers – A small computer that contains a microprocessor and its centralprocessor.Minicomputers – A computer of medium power.Mainframe – A large computer system with central processing unit.Supercomputer – A powerful mainframe computer capable of dealing with complexproblem (super computing)Hardware / Software:A computer system consists of hardware and software for its proper functioning.Hardware: The physical components of the computer are collectively called as hardware.Software: The computer requires a set of instruction to perform any task. These are calledprograms. A set of program is known as software (e.g. Operating System).Without OS the computer is not functioning. S/w can be classified into 2 types.I. System softwareII. Application softwareSystem software: System software’s are used for an effective execution of user’s program onthe system.Application software: Application Software are used to satisfy the application need of theuser.1
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerWorking principle of computer.The computer works on the principle of input process output.Input: Data and instructions must be fed into computer is known as input. This can be carriedout with the help of the input devices. Keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital cameras, barcodereader, are the examples of input device.Process: The computer works on the data given according to the instruction is known as process.It is carried out by the central processing unit (CPU).Output: The results are the final output is carried out with the help of the output devices.Monitor and printer are examples of output devices.Block diagram of computer:The central processing unit is known as the brain of the computer. It is the controller of acomputer. It has 3 components.Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) – the ALU perform Arithmetic and Logic operations, andother data processing tasks as specified by a program.Control Unit (CU) – It controls the entire processing. It monitors and guides the flow ofinformation between various units. The control unit receives the instruction one by oneform the program which is stored in memory.Memory Unit (MU) – The memory unit stored program as well as input, output andintermediate data. The memory of a computer is a working place where it temporarilykeeps information and data to help in its calculation.2
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerCharacteristic of computer.Computers perform a variety of activity with reliability, accuracy and speed. Thesecharacteristic of computer make them so popular and widely used.Speed: Computer is an electronic device that operate on electric signal, which travel at thespeed of light.The quick service offered by computer in various field depends on its speeds.The speed of the computer is measured in millisecond, microsecond, nanosecond andpicoseconds whereMillisecond 1/1000 second (or) 10-3Microsecond 1/1,000,000 second (or) 10-6Nanosecond 1/1000,000,000 second (or) 10-9Pico second 1/1000,000,000,000 second (or) 10-12Storage capacity:Computer has enormous storage capacity. They can store large volumes of data for quickretrieval.The storage capacity of a computer depends on its memory and is measured in bits, bytes,kilobytes, mega bytes, giga bytes and tera byte where8 bits 1 byte1024 Byte 1 Kilo Byte (KB)1024 Kilo byte 1 Mega Byte (MB)1024 Mega byte 1 Giga Byte (GB)1024 Giga byte 1 Tera Byte (TB)Accuracy:Computers are not only fast but also accurate. The qualities user of the computer is madepossible by the capability of its accuracy.Data stored in a computer can be updated as when required. The accuracy in the ratio correctsinformation to the total amount of information.3
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerMemory:The memory of a computer is a working place where it temporarily keeps information and datato help in its calculations.The computer makes use ofInternal Memory – (primary)External Memory on storage medium – (Secondary)Internal Memory:It is the memory that built within the computer. It is also called as a main memory. Itsclassified into two types.Read Only memory (ROM)Random Access Memory (RAM)ROM:In this memory, information once stored in permanent. Its can only be read and notwritten onto.It contains a set of start-up-instructions that are to be performed when a computer isturned on. The contents of the ROM are not erased if the power is switched off.RAM:This is the computer internal memory that can be read and written onto.RAM is the area used by the CPU during the calculations and processing. The contents of theRAM are erased if the power is switched off.External Memory:It also called as external storage device. Storage device is a medium to store theinformation that you want. These devices are used to transfer data from one device to antherdevice.It is necessary to store the data, programs and instruction to use them later.The secondary storage device can be classified depending on the characteristic of the medium.They are4
Fundamentals of Digital Computer1) Sequential - access- storage device:Magnetic tapes are example of sequential access storage. Records are organized and accessedone after the other. Large volume of data can be stored in magnetic tape but it is slower inspeed for data retrieval.If we want to access the n-th record n-1 records must be passed through. Suppose if we wantto access the 100 th record first 99 should be passed through. It is used for off-lineapplications.2) Direct- Access- storage device:Floppy disks and hard disk are the example for direct access storage device. The storage andretrieval of data is at a higher rate. The data is randomly accessible and this makes the devicesuitable for on-line application.3) Magnetic disks:The disks are flat circular plats coated on both sides with iron-oxide magnetized material. Itis available in 2 form the floppy disks and the hard disks.Floppies are flat circular plastic disk coated on both sides with magnetic material.Hard disks are groups of flat, circular flexible disks arranged vertically on a spindle. They arecoated with magnetized material on both sides.Processors:Processors are program that translate the high-level language to machine language. Thelanguage processors are compiler, interpreted and assembler.Interpreted:This is an alternative to the compiler. Each statement of a program is converted intomachine code, as it is needed during the execution of the program. The object code is not savedfor future use.Assembler:The job of the assembler is to convert assembly language program into machine code. Italso allocates areas of main storage. It produces a copy of the translated program on disk.5
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerCompiler:Compiler is also a system software that will convert the program written in the high levellanguage into its equivalent low level language. The program given in high level language iscalled source program. The program in low level language is called as object program. It isillustrate in the following diagram.Source CodeHigh level LanguageCompiler(Translate)Object CodeMachine LanguageComputer language:Computer or programming language is communicative system between the user and thecomputer. Program is a set of instruction to perform specific task.Types of computer language:There are 3 type of programming languages are,1. Machine language (low level language)2. Assembly language (using mnemonic code)3. High level language (keywords)Machine language:Machine language is also called as low level language. It has only binary numbers (0& 1).The computers can execute a program written using binary digits only. This type ofprograms is called machine language programs.It will be very difficult for developing programs for complex problem solving. Also itwill be very difficult for a person to understand a machine language program writtenby another person.At present, computer user do not write programs using machine language. Also theseprograms written for execution in one computer cannot be used on another type ofcomputer. That is the programs were machine dependent.6
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerAssembly language:Assembly language has mnemonic (symbolic name) which is particular for aprocessor.Mnemonic codes are used to develop program for problem solving. The programbelow shows an assembly language program to add two numbers A and B.Mnemonic codeDescriptionMVI A, O5-It reads the value of AMVI B, 04-It reads the value of BADD B-Add the value of A and B and store the result in ASTA M-Move the result to MemoryHLT-Stop the executionAssembly language is designed mainly to replace each machine code with anunderstandable mnemonic code.To execute an assembly language program it should first be translate into anequivalent machine language program.Writing and understanding programs in assembly language is easier than that ofmachine language.High level language:o High level language is a machine independent language. It has keywords. High levellanguage permits the user to use understandable code using the language structure.In order to execute a high-level language program, it should be translated into a machinelanguage either using a compiler or interpreter.The high level languages commonly used areBASIC - Beginner’s All Purpose Symbolic Instruction CodeFORTRAN – FORmula TRANslationCOBOL – COmmon Business Oriented Language.After 1970’s the programming language such as C, C . Visual Basic and Visual C are developed to make off line application.Recently developed programming language such as JAVA, JSP, and ASP.NET aresuitable for developing on line application. Now this online programming languagepopular in IT industries.7
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerThe following program written in BASIC language is to add two given number.Program codeDescription10 INPUT A, B- To read the value of A and B20 LET C A B-30 PRINT C-Print the value of c to monitor40 END-Stop the executionA and B are added and result is stored in COperating SystemIntroduction :An operating system in a program that acts as an intermediary between the users of acomputer and the computer hardware.The primary goal of operating systems are designed to be convenient, efficient andcombination of these two.An operating system plays a vital role in every computer system.A computer system can be divided into four components. They are the hardware, theoperating system, the application program and the users.The following figure shows the Abstract view of the components of a computer system.8
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerThe hardware provides the basic computing resources such as CPU, memory and I/Odevice.The application programs define the ways in which resources are to solve the computingproblems to the user. (E.g. word processors, programming language, compiler and web browser)The operating system controls and co-ordinates the use of the hardware among thevarious application program for the various users.An operating system is similar to a government. Like a government, it performs no usefulfunction by itself. It simply provides an environment within which other program can do usefulwork.Operating system can be explored form two view points. They are the user and thesystem view.User viewThe user view of the computer varies by the interface being used.The computer users sit in front of a PC. Consist of a monitor, keyboard, mouse andsystem unit. Such a system is designed for one user to utilize its resources.Some users sit at a terminal connected to a mainframe or minicomputer. Other users areaccessing the same computer through other terminals.These users share resources and may exchange information. The operating system isdesigned to maximize resource utilization. Such as CPU time memory and I/O are usedefficiently.Other users sit at workstations. Connected to networks of other workstations and servers.The operating system is designed to share resources such as networking and servers (file)computer and print.Recently many varieties of handhold computers have come into fashion. These devicesare mostly standalone. Some are connected to networks, either directly by wire or throughwireless modems.Due to power limitation they perform relatively few remote operations. The OS aredesigned mostly for individual usability, but performance per amount of battery life is importantas well.Some computers have little or no user view. For e.g. embedded computers in homedevices and automobiles may have a numeric keypad and may turn indicator lights on or off toshow status. The operating systems are designed to run without user intervention.9
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerSystem viewFrom the computers point of view, the OS is the program that is most intimate with thehardware.An OS is a resource allocator. It allocates the required resource to solve a problem.The fundamental goal of computer systems is to execute user program and to makesolving user problems easier.Toward this goal computer hardware is constructed. Since base hardware alone is notparticularly easy to use. The OS includes the functions of controlling and allocating aredeveloped.An operating system is the one program running at all times on the computer so it iscalled as kernel.Types of operating system:Mainframe computer systems were the first computer used to tackle many commercialand scientific applications. The growth of mainframe systems starts form Batch system to timeshared systems.Batch SystemThe user did not interact directly with the computer systems. Rather the user prepared ajob, which consisted of the program, the data and some control information about the nature ofthe job and submitted it to the computer operator.The job was usually in the form of punch cards. After some times the output appeared.The output consists of the result of the program as well as a dump of the memory contents fordebugging.The OS in these early computers was fairly simple. Its major task was to transfer controlautomatically from one job to the next. The OS was always resident in memory.The following figure shows the memory layout for a simple batch system.OperatingSystemUserProgram10
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerThe operator collect the jobs form the programmers and sort it into batches with similarrequirements and as the computer become available, would run each batch.The output from each job would be sent back to the appropriate programmer. In thisexecution environment, the CPU is often idle, because the speeds of the mechanical I/O deviceare slower than electronic devices.Multiprogrammed Systems:The introduction of disk technology allowed the OS to keep all jobs on a disk, rather thanin a serial card reader.With direct access to several jobs the OS could perform job scheduling is the ability tomultiprogramming.A single user cannot keep the CPU busy at all times.Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU alwayshas one to execute.The OS keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously. The following figure shows thememory layout for a multiprogramming systemOS0Job 1Job 2Job3Job 4512kThis set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.The OS picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory. Eventually, the jobmay have to wait of some task. Such as an I/O operation to complete.In a non-multi programmed system, the CPU would sit idle.11
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerIn a multiprogramming system, the OS simply switches to and executes another job.When that job needs to wait, the CPU is switched to another job and soon. Eventually the firstjob finishes waiting and gets the CPU back.As long as at least one job needs to execute, the CPU is never idle. This OS is similar tolawyer.Time sharing systems:Time sharing system or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.The CPU executes multiple jobs by switching among them.A time sharing OS uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each userwith a small portion of a time shared computer. Each user has at least one separate program inmemory.A program or process executes, it typically executes for only a short time before it eitherfinishes or needs to perform I/O.I/O may be interactive i.e. output is to a display for the user and input is from a userkeyboard or other device. Since interactive I/O typically runs at “people speeds” it may take along time to complete. For e.g. the users can type maximum seven characters per second, but it isslow for computers. In this case the OS will rapidly switch the CPU to the program of someother user.Multiprocessor systems:Most systems to date are single-processor system they have only one main CPU.However multiprocessor systems also known as parallel or tightly coupled system are growing inimportance. Such systems have more than one processor in close communication, sharing thecomputer bus, the clock, and sometimes memory and peripheral device.This system has 3 main advantages.Increase through put: By increasing the number of processors, we hope to get morework done is less time. The speed-up ratio with N processor is Not n rather it is less than N.Economy of scale: multiprocessor system can save more money then multiple singleprocessor systems, because they can share peripherals, mass storage, and power supplies.Several programs operate on the same set of data, to store those data on one disk.12
Fundamentals of Digital ComputerIncreased reliability: if program can be distributed properly among several processors,then the failure of one processor will not halt the system, only slow it down.If we have ten processors and one fails, then each of the remaining nine processors mustpick up a share of the work of the failed processors. These systems are designed for faulttolerant.Multiprocessor systems can be classified into two types. Symmetric Multiprocessing(SMP) and Asymmetric Multiprocessing.Symmetric Multiprocessing:The most common multiple processor systems now use symmetric multiprocessing, inwhich each processor runs an identical copy of the OS and these copies communicate with oneanother as needed. (OS supports for SMP are Windows NT, Solaris, UNIX, and LINUX.)Asymmetric Multiprocessing:Some system use asymmetric multiprocessing, in which each processor is assigned aspecific task.A master processor controls the system. The other processors either look to the master forinstruction or have predefined tasks. This scheme defines a master-slave relationship. The masterprocessor schedules and allocates work to the slave processor.Distributed SystemsA network is a communication path between two or more system. Distributed systemdepends on networking for their functionality (to share computational tasks).Networks vary by the protocols used, the distances between nodes and the transportmedia. Most OSs support TCP/IP, including windows and UNIX operating system.These are 3 types of Networks.LAN - Exists within a room, a floor or a building.WAN - A global company may have WAN to connect its offices, world wide. These network OSincludes one or several protocol.MAN - could link buildings within a city13
Fundamentals of Digital Computera) Client server Systems:Terminals connected to centralized systems are now being supplanted by PCs.Today c
Fundamental of digital computer Introduction to computer:- A computer is an electronic device that has the ability to accept data, store data, perform mathematical and logical operations, and report the results. C
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