Textbook On Optical Fiber Communication - Kopykitab
Second Edition Textbook on Optical Fiber Communication and Its Applications S.C. Gupta
Textbook on Optical Fiber Communication and Its Applications SECOND EDITION S.C. GUPTA Director Northern India Engineering College Guru Govind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi Former Director SGIT and MAIT, Ghaziabad New Delhi-110001 2012
TEXTBOOK ON OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS, Second Edition S.C. Gupta 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN-978-81-203-4580-5 The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Eighth Printing (Second Edition) April, 2012 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Meenakshi Printers, Delhi-110006.
CONTENTS Preface 1. xi INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBERS 1–14 1.1 Historical Perspective 1 1.1.1 Future Trend 7 1.2 Broadband Optical Fiber Communication System 8 1.2.1 How Communication is Done? 8 1.2.2 Need for Large Information Capacity 9 1.2.3 Why Digital Communication Electronics? 10 1.3 Pulse Duration and Bandwidth of an Optical Fiber 13 Problems 14 References 14 2. OPTICAL FIBERS AND FIBER CABLES 15–69 2.1 Introduction 15 2.1.1 Terminology of Light 15 2.2 Classification of Fibers 27 2.2.1 Parameters of Monomode and Multimode Fibers 30 2.2.2 Modes in Mono and Multimode Fibers 32 2.3 Step Index Fibers: Numerical Aperture and Multipath Dispersion 33 2.3.1 Propagation and Multipath Dispersion in Graded Index Fiber 37 2.3.2 Single Mode Fiber 37 2.3.3 Numerical Aperture 38 2.3.4 Different Types of Monomode Fibers 39 2.3.5 Description of Modes 41 2.3.6 Types of Modes 42 2.4 Attenuation 44 2.4.1 Bending Losses 44 2.4.2 Attenuation Loss 46 2.5 Absorption 48 2.6 Rayleigh Scattering 49 2.6.1 Rayleigh Scattering Coefficient 49 2.6.2 Nonlinear Scattering in Fibers 51 iii
iv Contents 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 Fabrication of Optical Fiber 53 Drawing of Optical Fibers 54 Classification of Fiber Cables 57 The Selection of Fiber Cable 62 Installation Procedures 63 Performance of Optical Fiber Cables 64 2.12.1 Mini Bundle Cable 64 2.13 High Performance Optical Communications Cable Problems 68 References 69 3. 66 ELECTROLUMINESCENT SOURCES 3.1 Introduction 70 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 70–173 Part I Semiconductor Photon Optical Sources Light Sources and Transmitters 71 3.2.1 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 72 p-n Junction Semiconductor 74 3.3.1 Formation of p-n Junction 75 3.3.2 Drift and Diffusion Current 75 The Potential Barrier at the p-n Junction 78 3.4.1 p-n Junction with Forward Bias 83 3.4.2 Breakdown of a p-n Junction Diode 83 3.4.3 Current Flow Across a p-n Junction 86 LED Light Sources 92 3.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Light Emitting Diodes 3.5.2 Light Emitting Diodes 95 3.5.3 Burrus LEDs 95 3.5.4 Edge Emitting LED (ELED) 97 LED to Fiber Launched System 99 Semiconductor Laser Diode 101 Heterostructure Semiconductor Lasers 105 Single-Frequency Semiconductor Lasers 109 The Semiconductor Injection Laser 112 Quantum Well Lasers 115 Index Guided Lasers 115 Single-Frequency Injection Lasers 117 3.13.1 Distributed Feedback Lasers 118 Packaging of LED and Laser Diodes 120 3.14.1 LED Packaging 120 3.14.2 Laser Diode Packaging 121 Frequency Chirping 122 Part II Unguided Optical Communication 3.16 Lasing Action in Various Laser Sources 123 3.17 Introduction to Solid State Lasers 125 3.17.1 Black Body Radiation 125 3.17.2 Boltzmann Statistics 126 3.17.3 Einstein Coefficients for Absorption and Emission 71 94 123 126
v Contents 3.18 Laser Oscillator 135 3.18.1 Operation at Threshold 136 3.19 Optical Resonator 139 3.19.1 Intensity Distribution of Transverse Modes 139 3.19.2 Characteristics of a Gaussian Beam 144 3.20 Resonator Configurations 145 3.20.1 Stability of Laser Resonators 149 3.21 Active Resonator 150 3.22 Spectral Characteristics of Laser Output 153 3.22.1 Ruby Solidstate Laser 155 3.23 Commercially Available Ruby Laser Rods 159 3.23.1 Nd: YAG Solid State Laser 160 3.23.2 Nd: YAG Laser Rods 161 3.23.3 Nd: Glass Solid State Laser 163 3.24 Commercially Available Laser Rods 165 3.25 Comparison of Ruby, Nd: YAG, and Nd: Glass Solid State Lasers 3.26 Q-Switches and External Switching Devices 167 3.26.1 Pulse-Reflection Mode Q-Switches 167 3.27 Mode Locking 167 3.27.1 Passive Mode Locking 170 3.27.2 Active Mode Locking 170 3.28 Glass Fiber Laser 171 Problems 172 References 173 4. OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMITTER 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Introduction 174 Direct Intensity Modulation 176 Direct Optical Modulation 177 Digital Communication System 179 Sampling 180 4.5.1 Sampling Technique 180 Analog to Digital Conversion 181 4.6.1 Operation of the Analog to Digital Converter Digitization and Modulation 185 Encoding the Digital Signals 187 4.8.1 Encoding Schemes 189 Generation of Sampling Signal 192 Quantizing 192 Encoding 194 Digital Multiplexers 196 ASK, FSK, PSK 196 4.13.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) 197 4.13.2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) 198 4.13.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) 199 166 174–217 181
vi Contents 4.14 Line Coding 201 4.14.1 RZ Coding 202 4.14.2 NRZ Coding 203 4.14.3 Block Coding 204 4.15 LED Analog Transmission 207 4.16 LED Digital Transmission 209 4.17 Laser Semiconductor Transmitters Problems 216 References 217 5. 214 OPTICAL DETECTORS 5.1 Introduction 218 5.2 Optical Detectors 219 5.2.1 Photoemissive Diode 219 5.2.2 Photoconductive Diode 221 5.2.3 Photovoltaic Diode 224 5.2.4 Avalanche Photodiode 229 5.2.5 Photo Transistor 232 5.2.6 PIN Photodiodes 234 5.3 Pyroelectric Detectors 237 5.3.1 Pyroelectric Detector for Laser Pulse Shapes 245 5.3.2 Pulse Shaping 246 5.3.3 Parametric Study of Detectors 247 5.3.4 Design of Arrays (Several Elements in a Linear Array) 5.3.5 A Pyroelectric Power Meter for the Measurement of Low Level Laser Radiation 251 5.3.5 Pyroelectric Reflectometer (PR) 259 5.3.7 Pyroelectric Joulemeter 260 Problems 264 References 265 6. 218–265 249 OPTICAL RECEIVER SYSTEMS 6.1 Noise Sources 266 6.1.1 Noise in Optical Detector 271 6.1.2 Quantum Noise 272 6.2 Receivers for Fiber Optic Communication Systems 274 6.2.1 Basic Components of a Digital Fiber Optic Communication Receiver 274 6.3 Front-Ends for Digital Fiber Optic Communication Receiver 275 6.4 Coherent Optical Fiber Detection System 286 6.4.1 Direct Detection Performance 287 6.4.2 Coherent Detection Principles 287 6.4.3 Coherent System Performance 290 6.4.4 Comparison of Direct and Coherent Detection Performance 6.4.5 Practical Coherent System Constraints 292 266–310 291
vii Contents 6.5 Coherent Optical Communication Experiments 293 6.5.1 Homodyne System Experiment Using Gas Lasers 295 6.5.2 Heterodyne System Experiment Using External Cavity Lasers 6.5.3 Heterodyne System Experiment Using a DFB Laser Transmitter 6.5.4 Frequency Multiplexed Coherent System Experiment 300 6.6 Transmission and Detection Systems 302 6.7 Noise Effects on System Performance 305 6.7.1 Modal Noise 305 6.7.2 Chirping 307 Problems 308 References 309 7. OPTICAL FIBER CONNECTIONS AND OPTICAL AMPLIFICATION 7.1 Introduction 311 7.2 Optical Fiber Connectors 311 7.2.1 Basic Components of Optical Fiber Connectors 312 7.3 Types of Optical Fiber Connectors 313 7.4 Fiber Connector Standards 316 7.4.1 Connector Designs from Past to Present 316 7.4.2 Termination Process 316 7.4.3 Tests and Measurement after Installation of Fiber Cable 7.5 Loss Mechanism 318 7.5.1 Insertion Loss 318 7.5.2 Return Loss 318 7.5.3 Connection Losses (Intrinsic Losses) 320 7.5.4 Extrinsic Losses 322 7.5.5 Reflection Loss 323 7.6 Splicing Techniques 325 7.6.1 Procedure of Splicing 325 7.7 Types of Splicing 327 7.7.1 Mechanical Splicing 327 7.7.2 Fusion Splicing 328 7.7.3 Fusion Splice Protection 331 7.7.4 Application of Different Test Equipment 332 7.8 Optical Switches 336 7.8.1 Single Switches 336 7.8.2 Multistage (Large) Switches 339 7.9 Wavelength Converters 340 7.10 Functional Modules 342 7.10.1 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers (OADM) 342 7.10.2 Optical Cross Connect (OXC) 342 7.11 Wavelength-Division Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 345 7.11.1 All-Fiber WDMs 346 7.11.2 Arrayed-Waveguide Grating WDMs 348 296 298 311–365 317
viii Contents 7.11.3 Diffraction-Grating WDMs 349 7.11.4 WDM MUXs and DEMUXs 352 7.12 Optical Filters 352 7.13 Isolators and Attenuators 354 7.13.1 Isolators: Principle of Operation 354 7.14 Attenuators 355 7.14.1 Types of Attenuators 357 7.15 Couplers and Splitters 358 7.15.1 Advantages of FBT Couplers 359 7.15.2 Port Configurations of Couplers 360 7.16 Optical Amplifier 362 7.16.1 Design of an Optical Amplifier 363 Problems 365 References 365 8. TELECOMMUNICATION APPLICATION 8.1 Introduction 366 8.1.1 Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication Links 8.2 Generations of Optical Fiber Link 368 8.2.1 First Generation System 368 8.2.2 Second Generation System 368 8.2.3 Third Generation System 369 8.2.4 Fourth Generation System 369 8.3 Network Layers 371 8.4 Local Area Network General Considerations 373 8.4.1 LAN Standards 375 8.4.2 Other Standards 376 8.4.3 The OSI Model and Local Area Networks 376 8.5 Optical Fiber LAN Link 377 8.5.1 The Data Link System 377 8.5.2 Optical Data Highway System Components 377 8.5.3 Optical/Electrical Interface (OEI) 379 8.5.4 Optical Fiber Cable 379 8.6 Optical Networking Technology in Enterprise 380 8.6.1 Application Areas 380 8.6.2 Future Trends in Optical Networking 384 8.7 Description of 8 Mb/s Optical Fiber Communication Link 8.7.1 System Architecture 385 8.7.2 System Technology and Techniques 387 8.7.3 Hardware Architecture 387 8.8 Description of 2.5 Gb/s Optical Fiber Communication Link 8.8.1 Optical Transport Network Concept 398 8.8.2 Optical Cross-connect 399 8.9 Optical Access Line for CATV Services 405 8.9.1 Network Management 410 8.9.2 Future Developments 410 8.9.3 Cable TV Network 414 366–425 367 385 397
Contents ix 8.10 Optical Submarine Cable Coastal Networks 417 8.10.1 Optical Submarine Cable Coastal Networks: Two Examples of in Service Networks 417 8.10.2 Technology Evolution in the Field of Optical Submarine Cable Coastal Networks 420 8.11 Power Budget 421 Problems 423 References 424 Annexure 1 425 9. APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS AND SYSTEMS 426–440 9.1 Introduction 426 9.2 Types of Optical Fiber Sensors 427 9.2.1 Extrinsic Sensors 427 9.2.2 Intrinsic Sensors 428 9.3 Industrial Applications of Optical Fiber Sensors and Systems 429 9.3.1 Optical Fiber Flow Sensors (Intrinsic) 429 9.3.2 Optical Fiber Displacement Sensors (Extrinsic) 430 9.3.3 Current Measurement by Single Mode Optical Fiber Sensors 431 9.3.4 Photoelastic Pressure Fiber Sensors 432 9.3.5 Fiber Bragg Gratings for Strain and Temperature Sensors 433 9.3.6 Optical Fiber Temperature Sensor with Polymer Ceramic Composites 435 9.3.7 Systems Applications 436 9.4 Civil Engineering Applications of Optical Fiber Sensors 436 9.5 Military Applications of Optical Fiber Sensors and Systems 437 9.6 Applications of Optical Fiber Communications in Consumer Products 438 9.7 Miscellaneous Applications of Optical Fiber Systems 439 Problems 440 References 440 10. NETWORK APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS 10.1 Introduction 441 10.2 Data Networks 442 10.2.1 Local Area Networks (LANs) 442 10.3 Network Topologies 443 10.3.1 Types of Topologies 443 10.4 Network Transport Architecture 447 10.4.1 LAN Structure 447 10.4.2 Ethernet 449 10.4.3 10 Mb/s Ethernet Link 449 10.4.4 100 Mb/s Ethernet Link 450 10.4.5 1 Gb/s Ethernet Link 451 10.5 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 451 10.5.1 SONET Standards 451 10.5.2 SONET Architecture 453 441–477
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2.7 Fabrication of Optical Fiber 53 2.8 Drawing of Optical Fibers 54 2.9 Classification of Fiber Cables 57 2.10 The Selection of Fiber Cable 62 2.11 Installation Procedures 63 2.12 Performance of Optical Fiber Cables 64 2.12.1 Mini Bundle Cable 64 2.13 High Performance Optical Communications Cable 66 Problems 68 References 69 3.
From the above-mentioned features of using optical fiber link as a transmitted media, it is proven that it is the best communication link. The following sections review the different components that constitute the optical fiber communication system, namely the optical transmitter,the optical fiber links and the optical receiver. II.
1.2 General Optical Fiber Communication System Basic block diagram of optical fiber communication system consists of following important blocks. 1. Transmitter 2. Information channel 3. Receiver. Optical Fiber Communication 10EC72 .
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2 Optical fiber communication technology 2-1 Optical communication principles and wavelength division multiplexing Within photonic technology there are modes such as the propagation of light through space, but this article discusses optical fiber communications utilizing optical fibers of glass materials with silicon oxide (SiO2) as the
A fiber optic communication system fulfills these requirements, hence most widely acception. 1.2 General Optical Fiber Communication System Basic block diagram of optical fiber communication system consists of following important blocks. 1. Transmitter 2. Information channel 3
Fiber optic communication systems use guided media (optical fiber) to transmit information superimposed on light from a transmitter to a receiver. Fig. 1 is a block diagram of the fiber optic communication system; it comprises a transmitter, channel (optical fiber), photo-detector and a receiver. The channel for
This project aims is how to build an optical fiber that transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver and what its components. The objective of this project: -Understand basic concepts of communication system. -Understand how the signal go throw the optical fiber. -Be familiar with parts of the optical fiber.
The external evaluation of the National Plan on Drugs and Drug Addiction 2005-2012 is taking place now and the final report will be presented in December 2012, which will include recommendations for the next policy cycle. The final report of the internal evaluation of both Plans (Drugs and Alcohol) will be presented by the end of 2012 for approval of the Inter-ministerial Council. Drug use in .
