An Analysis Of Theories Related To Experiential Learning .
Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(6): 1014-1020, 2017DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2017.050614http://www.hrpub.orgAn Analysis of Theories Related to Experiential Learningfor Practical Ethics in Science and TechnologySuma Parahakaran1,21Sathya Sai Academy, MalaysiaSingapore Academy of Educational Excellence (SAEE), Singapore2Copyright 2017 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under theterms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International LicenseAbstract Learners in higher education are self -driven toattain goals and objectives of what is required by theUniversities for career prospects in the fields of Sciences andTechnology. This paper analyses theories of experientiallearning which will contribute to implementation of Ethicalbehaviors in science and technology towards citizenshiplearning. This paper will focus on the theoretical aspects ofthe conceptions of learning, cultural implications of learning,how different types of knowledge contributes to learning andanalyses why such knowledge and learning is insufficient tomeet long term sustenance in life. Educational aims forsustenance of life through theories and practice have beendiscussed in ancient texts and education requires the reintegration of Ethics in all disciplines, particularly in Scienceand Technology. Education for higher order thinkingemphasizes on creating discriminative skills, criticalthinking, implementing knowledge as reflective practitionersand for the progress of society. The review and analysis ofExperiential Learning theories [1, 2, 3, 4] and its contributionto practical ethics is discussed in this paper. The emphasis onknowledge and skills are explained by theorists and thispaper discusses how the theories can be implemented incritical pedagogy for practical ethics related to the fields ofScience and Technology at the tertiary level.Keywords Practical Ethics, Science and Technology,Experiential Learning, Culture and Learning Theories1. IntroductionThe following sections explore different conceptions oflearning. The crisis of today’s issues with Science andTechnology in society lies with exclusion of ethics inexperiential learning and application of theories relevant tosustenance of life. Although researchers work with scientificand logical conceptions of knowledge for practicalimplementation, it has not attempted to research onconceptions of learning, cultural implications of learning, thecategories of knowledge that deal with the sustenance of lifeand how to deal with the integration of ethical aspects withthe outcomes of knowledge. The aim of the paper is not toanalyze strengths and weaknesses of the theoreticalperspectives but analyzed the conceptions of learning by fewresearchers and the sources of knowledge related toexperiential learning.1.1. Ethics, Science and TechnologyThe aim of integrating the research in this paper on the“sources of knowledge, ethics and conceptions of learning”is to reflect on the larger purpose of their applications forlong term sustenance of knowledge for lifelong learning.Knowledge as according to Kolb [5] “is a transformationprocess being continuously created and recreated, not anindependent entity to be acquired or recreated” [6, p.38].William James in 1980 as cited by Kolb [5], expounds on therole of consciousness and marveled at the continuity of it asone woke up from sleep. He marveled at the capability ofhuman beings being able to wake up with the same thoughts,feelings, memories and sense of who the person is. Thiscontinuity of learning through life’s experiences is alsodescribed from works of Dewey by Kolb [5]. According toKolb [5] the role of the consciousness and subjectiveexperiences in learning is important and all the four;experience, perception, cognition and behavior willcontribute a holistic approach to the conception of learning.Knowledge is therefore an outcome of a process oflearning which is related to sense experiences. The feeling ofcontinuity of such learning and understanding definessomewhat the role of consciousness. However, withoutmemory, the sense of continuity will cease to persist and it ismemory that connects learning from one experience toanother. This means that consciousness has a bigger role toplay; to hold memory, experiences derived from the sensesand the continuity of body experience. This consciousnessaccording to Baba [4], allows conscience to enter the body [4,p.258]. The Vice Chancellor of the Higher Institute of
Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(6): 1014-1020, 2017Learning introduced three terms which is related to learning.They are conscious, conscience and consciousness. Learningcan be defined as that which is known through the senses(conscious), without the context of time and place(consciousness) and one’s personal discriminatory facultieswhich includes critical reflection (conscience).There is evidence of such learning from the works ofPurdie and Hattie [5] on a multicultural sample consisting ofAustralian and Japanese students. They identified ninecategories of the conceptions of learning; growth ofknowledge, accumulation of information through memoryand being able to produce it; applying the information toachieve goals, understanding, perceiving things from variousother perspectives, personal fulfilment, a duty, process that isnot bound by time or context, and progressing in socialcompetencies. The last two categories of learning arise froma sense of being beyond personal, expanding to integrateaspects of the social world. Studies from Tynjala [6]identified identical categories; learning which isdevelopmental and that transcends time and context, learningas an interactive process between people. Kolb and Fry [7, p.52] defined the three theoretical implications of experientiallearning as; “environment to be broadly defined as formaleducational approaches, observable and controllable factorscan be related to individual differences in behaviourallearning styles, person- environment interaction must berelated in the context of growth and developmental goals forthe learner” p. 52. From Kolb’s model related to the processof experiential learning (p.25) and his explanation of theneed to understand experiential learning from a more holisticperspective, it is evident that experiential learning is acontinuous process. It encompasses perception, cognition,experience and behavior. To summarise, consciousnessencompasses perception, cognition, experience, behaviours,and acts related to the conscience. Research in Science andTechnology has failed to explore the conceptions of learningrelated to critical learning for both individual andfundamental discrimination, how one critically use theirlearning for their own benefit and for the sustenance of thesociety.1015be practical. The essence of this paper therefore focuses onthese two worlds as expressed by Louth [8];“To this contrast between the active life andcontemplation there corresponds a distinction inour understanding of what it is to be humanbetween reason conceived as puzzling things out,solving problems, calculating and makingdecisions - referred to by the Greek wordsphronesis and dianoia, or in Latin by ratio - andreason conceived as receptive of truth, beholding,looking - referred to by the Greek words theoria orsophia (wisdom) or nous (intellect), or in Latinintellectus”.Aristotle expressed differences between practiceand reflection as scientia; which defines the kindof knowledge by ratio and sapienta, wisdom for thekind of knowledge received by intellectus. Humanknowledge as stated by Louth, operates at twolevels, one is leading a life of practice and anotherlevel relating to beholding, contemplating andknowing reality [5, p.66-67].1.3. Knowledge and LearningKolb [5] stated that to learn involves comprehension ofnature and forms of human knowledge. From his overview ofresearch from work of psychologists, Kolb stated thatcommon sense can only be understood if one looks at it fromthe perspective of refined knowledge while refinedknowledge can only be based on common sense because ofthe limitations of highly refined knowledge and learningprocess range from social to personal knowledge. This alsoincludes cognitive and socio emotional perspectives [7].Kolb [5] stated examples of learning ranging fromscientific research and discovery to something as basic as thechild’s discovery that a ball bounces. The knowledge that isobtained from advanced research is based on previousexperiences accumulated from many years of humanexperiences which he termed as objective experiences andthe second example that is illustrated about the child’sunderstandingthat the ball bounces is a subjective1.2. Science and Wisdom: The Originsexperience.Knowledge is an outcome of both objective and subjectiveAccording to Louth [8] earlier in the monastic learningthere were two kinds of life; active and contemplative life experience which defines learning as a continuous process.(bios praktikos and bios theoretikos) which was known even Kolb [5], referring to Piaget’s work in 1965, explained howduring the time of Aristotle and known to both Aristotle and knowledge is acquired, increased, organized or reorganizedPlato. In Arsitotle’s view worldly activity was divided into (p.651). Piaget’s writings on inquiry into the nature ofworld of business and commerce, farming and manufacture, gaining knowledge indicated that knowledge either comeseveryday life happenings, and the world of thought. The from the object or it is completely constructed by the subjectactive life was meant to be concerned with the moral and or with more interactions between the subject and the object.political issues of worldly life as compared to the world of The other perspective for the sources of knowledge wasthought. Hence the word theoria originates from the word “to defined at the 2000 world conference in India. Baba [4]look” or “to see” and in Greek term, a seeking of the (2000), the Vice Chancellor of the Institute of Higherintellectual. Contemplation therefore symbolized knowledge, Learning, India stated that there are four kinds of knowledge.knowledge of reality, in contrast to knowing how, and how to They are; bookish knowledge; general knowledge;
1016An Analysis of Theories Related to Experiential Learning for Practical Ethics in Science and Technologydiscriminatory knowledge and fundamental knowledge.These different kinds of knowledge thus organized are theoutcomes of different kinds of learning. The knowledgeobtained from previous experiences of several culturalexperiences is termed as superficial knowledge, which isbookish knowledge while knowledge that transcends timeand experience is general knowledge. The third isdiscriminatory knowledge which are of two types. They are,as Baba [4] stated, individual and discriminatory knowledge.The first kind of discriminatory knowledge refers toknowledge gained for selfish purposes which is individualknowledge and the second is fundamental knowledge whichis knowledge related to the welfare of all beings. Usingknowledge for creating new systems, for example do not takeinto accounts of philosophical challenges of computingethics as reflected by Macer 2004 [9]. The authorities fromvarious fields of Science and Technology do not take intoaccount the outcomes of knowledge and its applications froman ethical perspective. What were the intentions behindknowing what is new and how to use the new information forthe welfare of the society? These questions invoke anindividual scholar to choose his or her actions of power,politics and ethics but do not contribute to sustenance ofprosperity or success in the long run. The crisis of today’seducation lacks understanding the nature of being human aswe do not link the relationship between reasoning forimplications of knowledge known through learning ofprocedural facts for solving problems (Science) and reasonconceived as Louth states for wisdom or intellect.Knowledge and its application have cultural implications andhow knowledge is used. Macer[9] defined ethics as follows;“The word “ethics” is closely related to love. Loveis the desire to do good and the need to avoiddoing harm. It includes love of others as oneself,the respecting of autonomy. It also includes theidea of justice, loving others and sharing what wehave - distributive justice” Macer, [9].The required changes related to ethical implications oflearning in Science and Technology lies on the shoulders ofauthorities in Higher education and how they encouragestudent participation in the realities of life for life- longlearning. There are various conceptions for the word“learning” and from the academic research conducted thefindings are provided below.The focus in this paper is to provide an overview of thefollowing: Conceptions of learning and knowledge (How learningoccurs and what forms of knowledge) Ethics, Science and Technology (Summary of nature oflearning for knowledge and for wisdom).1.4. Conceptions of LearningThe section below expounds only on few prominentresearchers on the topic of learning. They, Saljo [1], Purdie,Hattie and Douglas [10] and Purdie and Hattie [5] definedthe conceptions of learning using samples from differentparts of the world.The questions explored on learning included; whatlearners meant by learning and how do learners establishtheir learning. Säljö [1] explored a sample of ninety Swedishteenagers and adults’ whose ages ranged from 17- 93, ontheir understanding of the concept of learning. This sampleinvolved participants from different levels of formalacademic learning. The results included various differentconceptions of learning such as; (i) an increase in knowledge,(ii) memorizing, (iii) acquiring facts which is retained andused practically, (iv) knowing the meaning of what theylearnt and finally (v) an interpretive process which wasfocused on understanding reality.These conceptions of understanding were categorized assurface level (ii, iii) and deep level processing (iv, v). Saljo’sfindings from his work similarly revealed that learners makesense or find meaning which involves parts of subject matter,relating sometimes to each other and to real situations.Nickerson [11, pp. 217-234] as cited in Entwistle & Nisbet[12] stated that learning connects facts and integrates newknowledge into a “cohesive whole”. Understanding, heasserted is sense oriented and this changes over time as bothconcepts and theories are time related. The concept oflearning made aware through the senses changes over timeand learning moves from a surface approach to deepapproach. Other researchers who researched on theconceptions of learning defining the deep and surfacelearning approaches were Entwistle & Ramsden [12] andMarton [13]. Perkins and Blythe [14] explained the conceptof learning as a process well enough to comprehend, analyseand apply the concepts. Richardson [15] summarized theconcept of learning by stating that learning depended on thecontent, context of learning and what the tasks demanded. Itcan be summarized that learning for knowledge not onlychanges with time and requires application of learningaccording to the context in which learning should take place.Purdie, Hattie and Douglas [14] in Purdie and Hattie [5]explored the conception of learning using a sample fromJapan and Australia. They identified nine categories of theconception of learning. They were; Knowing moreinformation (b) memorizing and able to produce the sameinformation (c) applying the information (d) understanding(e) looking at different perspectives using the information (f)personal fulfilment (g) taking responsibility of one’s work (h)a process regardless of time and context and (i) developingskills for dealing with society. These categories demonstratethat as time evolves the learners have themselves integratedthe conceptions of learning for life which extends fromindividual to the society or learning of an interactive nature.When both Purdie and Hattie [5] researched using amulticultural sample and their findings reported thefollowing six conceptions of learning; “(a) gaininginformation; (b) remembering, using, and understandinginformation; (c) a duty; (d) personal change; (e) a process not
Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(6): 1014-1020, 2017bound by time or place; and (f) social competence” (p.27).The last two conceptions were also identified by a studyconducted by Tynjälä [6] where categories included learningas a (vi) process which is not predictable or avoidable and(vii) learning that occurs interactively. The last twocategories were identical in Tynjala [6] and Purdie andHattie’s [6] study indicating that conceptions of learninginclude learning which is of a different nature such as thosethat transcends time or place and is inclusive of the socialsphere.1.4.1. Importance of ReflectionBrookefield [2] asserted theoretically on the importance oflearning involving both action and reflection, wherein thecurricula must not expound knowledge isolated from reallearning but learning related to their conceptions of ideas,related skills and knowledge with “feelings in an immediateand relevant setting” [16, p.16]. He also asserted thesignificance of the opportunity to reflect on experience.Brookefield [2] emphasized the integration of both criticalreflection and experience in higher learning.1.4.2. Kolb’s Learning TheoryThe work by David Kolb [5] in 1984 defined learning asthat which integrates learning and experience. Kolb gavesignificant importance to applying abstract learning intoimmediate practice so that it can be a “publicly sharedreference point for testing the implications and validity ofideas created during the learning process” [6, p.21). Kolb’swork resulted in a model that includes four stage learningcycle in which the learner can experience all the four phases;concrete experience; reflective observation, abstractconceptualization and active experimentation. In theconcrete experience stage the individual is in directexperience with a new encounter or interprets existingexperience. In the reflective experience stage the learnerreflects on the new knowledge and is in a state ofunderstanding whether the learning is right or wrong. Thisleads the learner to a new idea or a modification of a conceptthat already exists and modifies the new idea which isreferred to as the abstract conceptualization. In the final stagethe learner applies to the world which stimulates learningtermed as active experimentation.1.5. Cultural Implications of Nature of LearningThere are different ways students conceptualize what theylearn depending on the cultures they come from. Results ofJoy and Kolb’s [17] study of cultures related to learningstyles in many countries revealed that culture influenceslearning. Various cultures have their influences in learning(Socratic, Confucius, Islamic education and education in theGurukula system in India) have impacts on how studentsconceptualize their learning. There are different views oflearning styles within cultures (from heterogenous groups)and those cultures that have practiced collectivistic kind ofapproach (India, China, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand,1017Cambodia, Africa etc). The cultures of these countries havedifferent ways of learning compared to groups of people whooriginate from individualistic kind of learning (America,Australia, Europe etc). The homogenous cultures had tosystematically learn through recitation of verses andreinforce learning of these verses in their memory in theSoutheast Asian regions.Confucian and Socraticapproaches can be adaptive depending on the contexts,Tweed& Lehman [18]. Their argument was that Socraticapproaches to learning tended to be more inductive, elicitingself- generating knowledge questioning learners’ beliefs.Students from the Confucius kind of learning styles, inTweed and Lehman’s [18] opinion emphasized more on thecommitment to learn, reforming behaviours and inculcatingrespectful
integration of Ethics in all disciplines, particularly in Science and Technology. Education for higher order thinking emphasizes on creating discriminative skills, critical thinking, implementing knowledge as reflective practitioners and for the progres
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 63-81 Learning Objectives 63 Key Terms 63 Role Theories 65 Motivational Theories 67 Learning Theories 69 Cognitive Theories 73 Symbolic Interaction Theories 75 Socio-Cultural Theories 77 Evolutionary Theories 78 Summary and review 80 review QueStionS 81 4. SELF AND IDENTITY 82-107
2 S o c i a l T h e o r i e s Theories can be used to study society—millions of people in a state, country, or even at the world level. When theories are used at this level they are referred to as macro-level theories, theories which best fit the study of massive numbers of people (typically Conflict and Functional theories).
These are equational theories that can be turned into convergent rewrite systems, modulo associativity and commutativity of certain binary operators. Many important theories for intruder deduction fall into this category, e.g., theories for exclusive-or [10,7], Abelian groups [10], and more generally, certain classes of monoidal theories [11].
Theories Proof Systems Class PV, S1 2 eF P [11, 6] PSA, U1 2 QBF PSPACE [18, 6] Ti 2, S i p1 2 G i, G 1 P i [29, 31, 6] VNC0 Frege (F) ALogTime [14, 15, 1] VL GL L [34, 15] VNL GNL NL [35, 15] The rst three theories are rst-order theories; the last three theories are second-order. The last three theories could also be viewed as multi-sorted rst .
The scientific method is the logical scheme used by scientists searching for answers to the ques-tions posed within science. Scientific method is used to produce scientific theories, including both scientific meta-theories (theories about theories) as well as the theories used to design the tools for .
1.1 This Book and Theories of Economics 1 1.1.1 Theories: Economic and Otherwise 4 1.1.2 Economic Theories in Disagreement 5 1.1.3 Are WAll e Economic Theorists? 6 1.2 Theories and Society 9 1.2.1 Changes in Europe and the Hum
that our initial survey of business communication theories was an adequate canvassing of essential business communication theories. We used the judges' ratings to classify the theories into four categories: notable, focused, major, and core. For categorizing the theories, we first averaged all raters' theory scores for each theory across all
Motivations I Basic goal: maximal extraction of information from the analysis of proofs in a formal inference system I Analytic proof systems for pure logic: sequent calculus, natural deduction I Extension to the analysis of mathematical theories: I theories with universal axioms (N and von Plato 1998) I geometric theories (N 2003, Simpson 1994 in ND-style) I a wide class of non-classical .
