Fundamentals Of Remote Sensing - University Of Novi Sad
Fundamentals of Remote SensingEdited and written by Noam LevinNovember 19991st Hydrographic Data Management course, IMO - International Maritime Academy,Trieste, ItalyRemote Sensing Laboratory, Geography Department, Tel Aviv University, IsraelGIS unit, the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israelnoam71levin@hotmail.com1
Table of .3.71.3.8DefinitionComparison to maps, GIS, aerial photography / Photogrammetry, SONARSatellite Images Vs MapsRemote Sensing Vs GISRemote Sensing Vs Aerial Photography / PhotogrammetryRemote Sensing Vs SONARApplications in generalAgricultureForestryGeologyHydrologySea IceLand Cover & Land UseMappingOceans & Coastal netic .5Electromagnetic energyInteraction mechanismsLaws regarding the amount of energy radiated from an objectPlanck Radiation LawWien’s displacement lawBlack body concept, Emissivity and Radiant TemperatureElectromagnetic SpectrumWavelength bandsAtmosphere effectsScatteringAbsorptionReflectance spectraMixturesGrain Size EffectsThe Continuum and Band DepthContinuum-Removed Spectral Feature ComparisonViewing te Characteristics: Orbits and SwathsScanner Sensor SystemsSpatial Resolution, Pixel Size, and ScaleSpectral / Radiometric resolutionSpectral charaecteristicsSpectral rangeSpectral bandwidthSpectral samplingSignal-to-noise ratioTemporal ResolutionOverview of different sensors – satellites and airborneComparison TableWeather Satellites/SensorsGOESNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's AdvancedVery High Resolution Radiometer343437384040414244454546464747482
43.7.1.43.7.1.4.13.7.1.4.23.7.1.4.33.7.1.5Land Observation Satellites/SensorsLandsat Multispectral ScannerLandsat Thematic MapperSysteme Probatoire d'Observation de la Terra (SPOT) HighResolution Visible SensorIndian Remote SensingIKONOSMarine Observation Satellites/SensorsCoastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS)MOSSeaWiFSLaser fluorosensor - another kind of sensorHyperspectral sensorsCompact Airborne Spectrographic Imager CASIDigital Airborne Imaging Spectrometer DAIS 7915AVIRIS Airborne Visible InfraRed Imaging SpectrometerSynthetic Aperture Radar 44.3.2.54.3.2.64.3.2.7Radiometric calibrationMain elements of sensor calibrationAbsolute radiometric calibration – from radiance to DN and backUniformity calibrationSpectral calibrationGeometric calibrationCalibration approachesPrelaunch calibrationOnboard calibrationVicarious calibrationAtmospheric - from radiance to reflectance or to temperatute\emissivityCalibrating images from different dates to like-valuesInternal Average Realtive Reflectance (IARR)Flat FieldEmpirical lineAtmospheric modellingBand transmittance computer modelsLine-by-line modelsMODTRAN2nd simulation of satellite signal in the solar spectrum – 6s codeATmospheric REMoval program (ATREM)ATCORTemperature calibration of imagesThermal properties of materialsRetrieval of temperature and emissivity from radiance in thermal imagesGeometric correctionsGeometric registrationPlane transformationsPolynomial transformationsTriangulationGround Control PointsResamplingRelief displacementLANDSAT – geometric characteristicsTM geometric accuracyTM data processing levelsRaw dataSystem corrected productsGeocoded productsLevel A – without ground control pointsLevel B – with ground control 535353545454553
l C – with ground control points plus DTMSPOT – processing levelsLevel 1A – no geometric correctionLevel 1B - compensating internal geometric distortionsLevel 1AP - Photographic product for photogrametric use withanalogue devicesLevel 2A – entry level for cartographic products – projected,no control pointsLevel 2B – geocoded product, projected, with ground control pointsLevel ORTHO - The ultimate level of preprocessing for the bestcartographic accuracy: correction of the residual parallax errorsbrought by the reliefParametric Geocoding (based on the PARGE alogrithm)5Image 5.3.55.3.5.15.3.5.2Storage formatsImage enhancment:Histogram, stretching, colour palettesContrast enhancementLinear StretchHistogram equalizationPiece-wise linear stretchRGB false colour compositColour Definition Models, fusion of TM and SPOTColour Definition ModelsRed, Green, and Blue (RGB)Hue, Saturation, and Lightness (HSL)CMYK ModelFusion by HSV TransformationSpatial filters – noise reduction (low-pass), edge enhancment (high-pass)The basic principles of a filterLow pass filtersHigh pass filtersMulti-band operationsImage ratios: Brightness variationsNormalized Difference Vegetation IndexPrincipal components analysisImage classificationDensity slicingMulti-spectral image classificationSupervised ClassificationSamplingClassificationAccuracy assessmentUnsupervised classification (clustering)UnmixingModeling mixed spectraPractical unmixing 261276Active Remote de Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR):FrequenciesPolarizationViewing Geometry and Spatial ResolutionRadar image distortionsTarget interaction and image appearanceRadar image propertiesAdvanced Radar 4.3.3.692939393944
7Remote Sensing Applications for the sea(passive and SLAR)1487.17.27.2.17.2.27.37.3.17.47.4.17.5Sea Surface TemperatureOil Spill DetectionCase study 1 – oil slickCase study 2 – oil seepIce motion and monitoringCase study (example): Operational ice monitoring with ERS-1 SARMapping the sea floor (bathymetry)Case study – SHOM’s nautical space chart (La spatiocarte marine)Vessel detection1481501511511521531551551588Digital video Remote .88.8.18.8.2A little historyGeneral advantages of using videoThe video imageCharge-Coupled DevicesThe geometric resolution of videoAirborne video data acquisitionTypes of airborne video systemsMultiband informationMultiplex systemsSingle camera systemsThe Silvacam cameraApplicationsCoastal monitoring in the NetherlandsThe Southwest Washington Coastal Erosion Study,and the ARGUS imetry1729.19.29.39.3.1Laser altimetryRadar altimetryRadar altimetry over the oceansMeasuring Ocean Topography for Understanding and PredictingClimate ChangeData sourcesGeosat follow-onTOPEX/PoseidonMission requirementsSensors on board the TOPEX/POSEIDONOrbit of the TOPEX/POSEIDONData retrievalJasonERS-2NRL layered ocean modelModular ocean data assimilation system (MODAS)Data processingInitial Data ProcessingInterpolationTide removalOrbit error removalReferencing to a consistent meanAltimetry products and derived productsDynamic Sea Surface Topography - (from Altitude)Sea Surface VariabilityWind Speed - (from backscatter coefficient)ScatterometryOcean circulationSignificant Wave Height - (from Wave Form Leading 841841861871885
9.5.5.2.59.5.5.2.6WatervaporMarine gravity and sea-floor topographyGlobal Bathymetric Prediction for Ocean Modelling andMarine GeophysicsAirborne laser scanning (ALS)Introduction – laser principlesPulse lasersWavelengthScanningPosition and orientation systemTypical processing stepsSome extended laser capabilitiesA short overview of applicationsAirborne Laser Scanning vs Photogrammetry – a comparisonLaser remote sensing of forest structureMulti-Beam Laser Altimeter (MBLA) - The Lidar Instrumentfor the Vegetation Canopy Lidar (VCL)Scanning laser mapping of the coastal zoneHistoric developmentWorking principlesBenefitsCase study: The ALACE project - Airborne LIDAR Assessmentof Coastal Erosion ProjectIHO and FEMA standards, and their relation to ALS technologyIHO S-44FEMAAIRBORNE LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING SYSTEMS General Guidelines for UsePerformance StandardsGPS ControlPost-Processing of DataQuality Control/Quality 2GIS metadataGIS metadata worked example – Bathymetry of the Gulf ofCarpentaria and the Arafura SeaRemote Sensing metadata11References and links22411.111.211.311.411.5Basic books about remote sensingRemote Sensing journalsOn-line tutorialsRemote Sensing softwaresOther Remote Sensing 62082092132132152152152162162172182202226
Thanks:First, I would like to express my thanks to the following people, for making this workpossible: The staff of IMO-IMA, for supplying me with the appropriate working conditions(free access to the Internet, the academy’s library) and helping whenever needed,the staff of the Earth Sciences library of the Trieste university, for their help inlending books and making photocopies of articles,all the people and institutions that maintain internet sites, and publish on-linearticles, tutorials, technical documentations, etc (references mentioned along thetext, the principal sources at the end of the text),Dr. Eyal Ben Dor from the geography department of Tel Aviv’s university forintroducing me to the field of Remote Sensing, andto my family and friends.7
Preface:§Craig J.M. (1998), The application of satellite imagery in support of nautical charting; pastexperience and future possibilities - a practical view, International Hydrographic Review,LXXV(1), no. 142, pp. 95-105The field of Remote Sensing is very wide, both in the data acquisition methods, dataprocessing procedures and techniques and the applications it is used for; it is also afast developing field, in all the above themes. This text is therefore intended to giveonly a general overview about several subjects, yet I hope, an extensive one, coveringall the important topics regarding Remote Sensing of the surface of the Earth. The textalso attempts to give the reader an understanding of the capabilities and limitations ofRemote Sensing. Very few equations and formulas will be given in the text, as thefocus will be on understanding the basic ideas. The main subjects covered are: The role Remote Sensing plays in our understanding of the Earth and the naturaland human processes affecting it,The radiometric and geometric principles of Remote Sensing,The principal sensors used, and their characteristics, in passive and active,imaging and non-imaging Remote Sensing, on airborne or on satellite platforms,from monochromatic to hyperspectral,The pre processing phase of data: radiometric, atmospheric, geometric and noisescorrections, andThe image processing phase of data: visualisation, enhancement and classification.Due to the wide scope covered, the subjects could not be covered in details and theinterested reader should turn to the relevant literature.Detailed examples of Remote Sensing applications will be given in areas which havedirect importance for either hydrography or oceanography. The advantages ofacquiring information by Remote Sensing apply, irrespective of platform or sensor,also for hydrography:1. It is cheaper than conventional surveying;2. It is safer than hydrographic surveying in shoal areas such as coral reefs;3. It is capable of change detection in rapidly developing ports and regularmonitoring of mobile areas such as deltas and sandbanks;4. World-wide coverage is comercially available, without security, political, orcopyright restrictions, enabling dataa acquisition from remote areas;5. The inherent geometry and therefore the relative positioning of features within asingle scene is generally very good.Through out the work all the references from which I have taken material are given,though not in the formal academic way.8
1. Introduction:1.1 .html1. The Definition of Remote Sensing In the broadest sense, the measurement oracquisition of information of some property of an object or phenomenon, by arecording device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object orphenomenon under study; e.g., the utilization at a distance (as from aircraft,spacecraft, or ship) of any device and its attendant display for gatheringinformation pertinent to the environment, such as measurements of force fields,electromagnetic radiation, or acoustic energy. The technique employs suchdevices as the camera, lasers, and radio frequency receivers, radar systems, sonar,seismographs, gravimeters, magnetometers, and scintillation counters.2. The practice of data collection in the wavelengths from ultraviolet to radioregions. This restricted sense is the practical outgrowth from airbornephotography. Sense (1) is preferred and thus includes regions of the EM spectrumas well as techniques traditionally considered as belonging to RS/satremot.htmlAs humans, we are intimately familiar with remote sensing in that we rely on visualperception to provide us with much of the information about our surroundings. Assensors, however, our eyes are greatly limited by 1) sensitivity to only the visiblerange of electromagnetic energy; 2) viewing perspectives dictated by the location ofour bodies; and 3) the inability to form a lasting record of what we view. Because ofthese limitations, humans have continuously sought to develop the technologicalmeans to increase our ability to see and record the physical properties of ourenvironment.Beginning with the early use of aerial photography, remote sensing has beenrecognized as a valuable tool for viewing, analyzing, characterizing, and makingdecisions about our environment. In the past few decades, remote sensing technologyhas advanced on three fronts: 1) from predominantly military uses to a variety ofenvironmental analysis applications that relate to land, ocean, and atmosphere issues;2) from (analog) photographic systems to sensors that convert energy from many partsof the electromagnetic spectrum to electronic signals; and 3) from aircraft to satelliteplatforms.Today, we define satellite remote sensing as the use of satellite-borne sensors toobserve, measure, and record the electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted by theEarth and its environment for subsequent analysis and extraction of information.9
1.2 Comparison to maps, GIS, aerial photography / Photogrammetry, SONARHere will be given the main points of similarity and difference between the field ofRemote Sensing (analysis and images) and the fields/products mentioned above.1.2.1 Satellite Images Vs Maps§§Anson R.W. and Ormeling F.J., (1993), Basic Cartography – for students and technicians, Vol 1.,ElsevierPortugaly Y. (1996), “The maps hidden from the eye”, Mishkafayim, 27, pp. 44-47 (in Hebrew)According to the International Cartographic Union, a map is “a conventionalisedimage representing selected features or characteristics of geographical reality,designed for use when spatial relationships are of primary importance”. Thisdefinition does declare that in every map there’s a process of selection present (and inaddition - symbolization, abstraction and generalization), but also keeps the aura ofscientific accuracy of a map. But, we should remember, that “a map shows us theworld as we know it, and what we know, is a very complex subject, that is comprisedof: The limits of matter, technology and our measurement tools, what we believe that exists, what we think to be important, and what we want and aspire to”Thus, a map is a subjective, for we always decide what to put on it, and how torepresent it. A Remote Sensing image in contrast, is an objective recording of theElectromagnetic reaching the sensor.Another important difference, is that a map is a projection of the earth on paper,without any relief displacements, while in a Remote Sensing image both reliefdisplacements and geometrical distortions.1.2.2 Remote Sensing Vs GISGIS (Geographic Information System) is a kind of software that enables: The collection of spatial data from different sources (Remote Sensing being one ofthem). Relating spatial and tabular data. Performing tabular and spatial analysis. Symbolize and design the layout of a map.A GIS software can handle both vector and raster data (some handle only one ofthem). Remote Sensing data belongs to the raster type, and usually requires specialdata manipulation procedures that regular GIS does not offer. However, after aRemote Sensing analysis has been done, its results are usually combined within a GISor into database of an area, for further analysis (overlaying with other layers, etc). Inthe last years, more and more vector capabilities are being added to Remote Sensingsoftwares, and some Remote Sensing functions are inserted into GIS modules.1.2.3 Remote Sensing Vs Aerial Photography / PhotogrammetryBoth systems gather data about the upper surface of the Earth, by measuring theElectromagnetic radiation, from airborne systems. The following major differencescan be given: Aerial photos are taken by an analog instrument: a film of a (photogrammetric)camera, then scanned to be transformed to digital media. Remote Sensing data isusually gathered by a digital CCD camera.10
The advantage of a film is its high resolution (granularity), while the advantage ofthe CCD is that we measure quantitatively the radiation reaching the sensor(radiance values, instead of a gray-value scale bar). Thus, Remote Sensing datacan be integrated into physical equations of energy-balance for example.An Aerial photograph is a central projection, with the whole picture taken at oneinstance. A Remote Sensing image is created line after line; therefor, thegeometrical correction is much more complex, with each line (or even pixel)needing to be treated as a central projection.Aerial photos usually gather data only in the visible spectrum (there are alsospecial films sensitive to near infrared radiation), while Remote Sensing sensorscan be designed to measure radiation all along the Electromagnetic spectrum.Aerial photos are usually taken from planes, Remote Sensing images also fromsatellites.Both systems are affected by atmospheric disturbances. Aerial photos mainly fromhaze (that is, the scattering of light – the process which makes the sky blue),Remote Sensing images also from processes of absorption. Atmosphericcorrections to Aerial photos can be made while taking the picture (using a filter),or in post-processing, as in done Remote Sensing. Thermal Remote Sensingsensors can operate also at nighttime, and Radar data is almost weatherindependent.In Photogrammetry the main efforts are dedicated for the accurate creation of a 3dmodel, in order to plot with high accuracy the location an
Fundamentals of Remote Sensing Edited and written by Noam Levin November 1999 1st Hydrographic Data Management course, IMO - International Maritime Academy, Trieste, Italy Remote Sensing Laboratory, Geography Department, Tel Aviv University, Israel GIS unit, the Society for t
Scope of remote sensing Remote sensing: science or art? The remote sensing process Applications of remote sensing Information flow in remote sensing The EMRreflected, emitted, or back-scattered from an object or geographic area is used as a surrogatefor the actual property under investigation.
PRINCIPLES OF REMOTE SENSING Shefali Aggarwal Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Division Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehra Dun Abstract : Remote sensing is a technique to observe the earth surface or the atmosphere from out of space using satellites (space borne) or from the air using aircrafts (airborne). Remote sensing uses a part or several parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. It .
Proximity Sensor Sensing object Reset distance Sensing distance Hysteresis OFF ON Output Proximity Sensor Sensing object Within range Outside of range ON t 1 t 2 OFF Proximity Sensor Sensing object Sensing area Output (Sensing distance) Standard sensing object 1 2 f 1 Non-metal M M 2M t 1 t 2 t 3 Proximity Sensor Output t 1 t 2 Sensing .
Jul 28, 2014 · imagery analysis are forms of remote sensing. Remote sensing, a term which refers to the remote viewing of the surrounding world, including all forms of photography, video and other forms of visualization (Parcak 2012) can be used to view live societies. Satellite remote sensing allows
ii wildfire-landslide-risk-dss.uark.edu Terrestrial Remote Sensing User Manual -- Welcome to the Terrestrial Remote Sensing User Manual prepared by the Remote Sensing for Geotechnics research group based at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. Contained within this user manual are guidelines and resources for the operation of
Remote Sensing 15.1 REMOTE SENSING Remote sensing is the science of gathering information from a location that is distant from the data source. Image analysis is the science of interpreting specific criteria from a remotely sensed image. An individual may visually, or with the assistance of computer enhancement, extract information from an image, whether it is furnished in the form of an .
Chapter 3 Introduction to Remote Sensing and Image Processing 17 Introduction to Remote Sensing and Image Processing Of all the various data sources used in GIS, one of the most important is undoubtedly that provided by remote sensing. Through the use of satellites, we now have a continuing program of data acquisition for the entire world with time frames ranging from a couple of weeks to a .
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