Modeling The Performance And Cost Of Lithium-Ion Batteries .
ANL-11/32Modeling the Performance and Costof Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric-Drive VehiclesChemical Sciences and Engineering Division
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ANL-11/32Modeling the Performance and Costof Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric-Drive VehiclesbyP.A. Nelson, K.G. Gallagher, I. Bloom, and D.W. DeesElectrochemical Energy Storage ThemeChemical Sciences and Engineering DivisionArgonne National LaboratorySeptember 2011
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TABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF FIGURES . viiLIST OF TABLES . ixABBREVIATIONS .xLIST OF SYMBOLS . xiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .xvEXECUTIVE SUMMARY . xvi1. Introduction .12. Battery and Cell Design Format .32.1 Cell Design.42.2 Module Design .52.3 Battery Pack Design .63. Modeling of Battery Design and Performance .93.1 Criteria for Power, Energy, and Life .93.2 Voltage at Rated Power .113.3 Governing Equations .173.4 Calculation of the ASI .183.4.1 Current Collection Resistance .203.4.2 Potential and Current Distribution .223.4.3 Determination of Module Terminal Size .243.5 Calculation of Battery Dimensions .253.5.1 Cell Dimensions .253.5.2 Module Dimensions .26ii
3.5.3 Battery Pack Dimensions .263.6 Additional Considerations .263.6.1 Maximum Electrode Thickness .273.6.2 Accounting for Parallel Cell Arrangements .333.6.3 Accounting for Parallel Module Arrangements .334. Thermal Management .344.1 Heat Generation Rates in the Battery Pack during Driving .344.2 Heating under Adiabatic Conditions .354.3 Active Cooling Systems .354.3.1 Heat Transfer from Cell to Module Wall .364.3.2 Heat Transfer from Module Wall to Flowing Coolant .384.4 Cooling and Heating Required to Maintain Pack Temperature .424.5 Heat-up from Cold Ambient Conditions .435. Modeling of Battery Pack Manufacturing Cost .445.1 Approach .445.2 Materials Costs and Purchased Items .455.2.1 Battery Specific Materials Cost .455.2.2 Purchased Items Cost .505.2.3 Pack Integration Cost .505.3 Baseline Manufacturing Plant .535.3.1 Receiving and Shipping .545.3.2 Electrode Materials Preparation .565.3.3 Electrode Coating .56iii
5.3.4 Calendering .575.3.5 Inter-Process Materials Handling .575.3.6 Electrode Slitting .585.3.7 Final Electrode Drying .585.3.8 Control Laboratory .585.3.9 Cell Stacking .595.3.10 Current Collector Welding .595.3.11 Enclosing Cell in Container .595.3.12 Electrolyte Filling and Cell Sealing .605.3.13 Dry Room Management .605.3.14 Formation Cycling, Final Cell Sealing, etc .605.3.15 Module and Battery Assembly .615.3.16 Rejected Cell and Scrap Recycle .625.3.17 Baseline Plant Summary .635.4 Adjustment of Costs for Rates .635.5 Plant Investment Costs .665.6 Unit Costs for Battery Pack .665.6.1 Variable Costs .665.6.2 Fixed Expenses .675.6.3 Profits .685.6.4 Battery Pack Warranty Costs .685.7 Summary of Baseline Battery Cost .686. Description of Spreadsheet Model and Instructions for Use .71iv
6.1 Background .716.2 Instructions .716.2.1 Enabling Calculation .716.2.2 System Selection Worksheet .736.2.3 Battery Design Worksheet .736.2.4 Remaining Worksheets .776.3 Battery Design Format Requirements .806.4 Troubleshooting and General Advice .806.5 Suggested Number of Cells, Modules, and Performance Inputs .806.6 Entering a New Material Couple .817. Illustrated Results .837.1 Number of Cells in Series .837.2 Cathode Materials .847.3 Parallel-Connected Cell Groups and Electrode Thickness .847.4 Manufacturing Scale .868. Future Work .898.1 Initial Power Designed at Differing Fractions of the Open-Circuit Voltage .898.2 Optimum Battery Voltage for Minimum Drivetrain Cost .898.3 Multipurpose Battery Manufacturing Plants .908.4 Stand-Alone Graphical User Interface for Model .909. Statement of Copyright .91References .92Appendix A: BatPaC v1.0 Variation Study .97v
LIST OF FIGURES2.1Prismatic cell and module design for battery packs .32.2Cell sandwich inside of prismatic pouch cells .42.3Coated current collector foil for prismatic electrodes .52.4Hermetically-sealed module .62.5Insulated battery jacket with enclosed modules that are cooled on their upper and lowersurfaces by ethylene glycol-water solution .73.1.Summary flow of the design model .103.2a) Required change in [V/U] to maintain rated power with increases in internalresistance over the life of the battery. b) Increase in current due to lowered [V/U] .133.3Change in heat rejection requirement from increases in resistance for batteries withdifferent designed voltages at rated power .143.4Efficiencies for batteries designed to achieve rated power at different fractions oftheir open-circuit voltage .163.5The change in current and potential within the positive and negative foils. The currentcollection design results in a uniform current distribution along the length of the foil .233.6Cell capacity simulated at the C/1 and C/3 rate as a function of electrode thickness(loading) for NCA-Gr. .293.7Normalized electrolyte salt concentration at the end of discharge at the C/1 and C/3discharge rates. .293.8Calculated ASI from a simulated 10-s, 5C discharge pulse for the NCA-Gr cell couple at60% SOC. .303.9The potential of the negative electrode versus a hypothetical lithium reference electrodelocated in the center of separator during a 5C charge pulse for the NCA-Gr couple .314.1Plot comparing the estimated resistance to heat transfer from the cell center to thecooled surface of the module to that calculated by the FlexPDE model .384.2Heat transfer from the module wall to the laminar flow heat transfer fluid. Thetemperature profile of the fluid is shown at different lengths down the path. .39vi
4.3Temperature profile in the heat transfer fluid for various fractions of the dimensionlesspath length. .414.4Correlation of model simulation results relating the Graetz number and mean Nusseltnumber for laminar flow between an insulated surface and the module casing .415.1Metal ingot cost contribution to the current collector foils over a 20 year period .495.2Baseline lithium-ion battery manufacturing plant schematic diagram .545.3Breakdown of installed capital equipment costs for the baseline plant .655.4Breakdown of unit costs for baseline battery with total price to OEM of 2428 .706.1Iteration must be enabled for the spreadsheet model to function .726.2The specific cell chemistry for the battery design is selected on the System Selectionworksheet .736.3System Selection worksheet .746.4Top portion of Battery Design worksheet .756.5Middle portion of Battery Design worksheet .766.6Bottom portion of Battery Design worksheet .786.7Summary of Results worksheet .797.1The effect of the number of cells for NMC441-Gr, 60-kW, PHEV25 packs with 10.7kWh total energy (70% useable) .837.2Mass and volume of electric vehicle battery packs with lithium iron phosphate (LFP),lithium manganese-spinel (LMO) and lithium nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC441)positive electrodes versus graphite designed to deliver 150 kW of power at 360 V (25%SOC). .857.3Battery pack price to OEM for LFP-Gr, LMO-Gr and NMC441-Gr battery packs forsame designs as in Fig. 7.2. NMC441-Gr and LMO-Gr result in nearly the same price.857.4Battery pack cost as a function of number of parallel cells and for different maximumelectrode thicknesses .877.5The effects of manufacturing rate on the price calculated by the model for battery packsof various cell chemistries, power capabilities and vehicle types .88vii
LIST OF TABLES3.1Criteria for designing batteries for a specific end-use application .93.2The effect of electrode loading on the price of a 17 kWh NCA-Gr PHEV40battery with 96 cells .324.1Sample calculations of composite thermal conductivities of cell structuresacross layer and parallel to layers .374.2Range of parameter values for calculating heat transfer rates in FlexPDE model .375.1Details of stated costs for cathodes, anodes, electrolyte, and separator .465.2Cost equations for purchased items .505.3Costs to integrate battery pack into vehicle drivetrain.515.4Summary table of the baseline plant .555.5Materials yields during electrode and cell fabrication .625.6The effect of processing rate (R) on cost for various scale factors .645.7Battery pack manufacturing investment costs .665.8Unit cost of battery pack .675.9Summary of results for cost of baseline battery and that of similar batteries withdouble the power and double the capacity of the baseline battery .696.1General suggestions for range of input parameters that change with battery type .81viii
ABBREVIATIONSASIarea specific impedanceBOLbeginning of lifeDMCdimethyl carbonateECethylene carbonateEMCethyl methyl carbonateEOLend of lifeEVelectric vehicleGrgraphiteGSAGeneral, Sales, and AdministrationHEVhybrid electric vehicleHEV-HPhigh-power assist hybrid electric vehicleLCOlithium cobalt oxideLFPlithium iron phosphateLilithiumLi-ionlithium-ionLMOlithium manganese spinelLMRlithium and manganese richLTOlithium titanate spinelmicroHEVmicro or mild power assist hybrid electric vehicleMWmolecular weightNCAlithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxideNMClithium nickel manganese cobalt oxideix
NMPN-Methyl-2-pyrrolidoneOCVopen-circuit voltageOEMoriginal equipment manufacturerPEpolyethylenePETpolyethylene te
7.2 Mass and volume of electric vehicle battery packs with lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium manganese-spinel (LMO) and lithium nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC441) positive electrodes versus graphit
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